American psychologist David McClelland (1917 - 1998) put forward the acquired theory of needs. From his study of 500 managers working in 25 American companies, he concluded that three types of needs must be satisfied in order to boost morale: (i) the need for achievement, (ii) the need for power, and (iii) the need for affiliation.

(i)  The need for Achievement (n-Ach)

McClelland found that achievement-motivated people tend to be moderate risk takers. Low risk activities are too easy to accomplish so n-Ach people do not feel they have genuinely achieved anything. They do not take high risks either since the outcome is largely based on chance and luck, rather than through their own efforts. These people also prefer to work on tasks where they hold key responsibilities or to work alongside high achievers. They are more interested in personal success rather than extrinsic rewards that recognise their achievements.

This could mean that n-Ach people prefer not to delegate tasks. They also tend to self-reflect on their performance in order to find ways to further improve. McClelland suggested that the major causes of n-Ach are parental influences, cultural factors and educational experiences.

(ii)  Need for Power (n-Pow)

Power-motivated people like to influence the behaviour of others so tend to be very strong-willed.  Power can take two forms: personal or institutional. Those who seek personal power do so to pass on instructions or orders to others. Perhaps this makes the person feel more important, but it often makes others resent the individual who is seen by others as a ‘power freak’. Staff will have to do as they are told, whether they agree with the n-Pow person or not.

By contrast, people who have institutional power strive to make others work harder in order to achieve organizational aims and objectives. They use their authority to try and bring out the best in their staff. Hence, McClelland argued that these people are more likely to be successful. He also suggested that good leaders need to have at least moderate n-Pow since leadership is about influencing the behaviour of others.

(iii)  Need for Affiliation (n-Aff)

People who need affiliation seek to have a good social and working relationship with colleagues and the management team. This makes them happier at work, thereby increasing their morale and productivity. Such people tend to conform to group norms and avoid conflict in order to be accepted as part of a group.

Unlike n-Ach people who may prefer to work alone, n-Aff people favour opportunities for social interactions, such as teamworking or customer relations. According to McClelland, individuals who have the need for affiliation tend to make poor managers and leaders as they are more likely to focus on how they are perceived and the acceptance of others, rather than focusing on the task itself or strategic decision-making. According to McClelland, those with the need for achievement and power tend to make more effective managers and leaders.

Social media platforms suggest that affiliation is important for motivation

McClelland believed that these three needs are present in all people although the relative intensity of each varies from one person to the next. His main contribution to the Human Relations school of thought is that people with different kinds of needs are motivated differently.

McClelland's model showed the following:

• Those with high n-Ach ought to be given achievable but challenging tasks. Tasks that are too easy are unchallenging whilst those that are too difficult mean there is no sense of real achievement as they are unmanageable.

• People with high n-Pow could be given opportunities to manage and lead a team of people. This is important for people who want to get things done and be seen to be important for the organization.

• Finally, those with n-Aff should be provided with a cooperative and collaborative working environment to gain their best performance. Hence, being part of a group or team is an integrated aspect of motivation.

Each person has a different balance of each of these three needs. McClelland suggested that we all have one of these as a dominant need. For example, a sales person on commission is likely to have a high need for achievement, whereas for a politician it might be the need for power. Therefore, managers who are aware of these needs and how they affect employees can allocate jobs and tasks more suitably to boost morale and productivity.

To review and consolidate your understanding of McClelland's acquired needs theory, watch this video that explains the theory in a concise way.

"When there is no consequence for poor work ethic, and no reward for good work ethic, there is no motivation."
- JD Roberts (b. 1956), Canadian-American television journalist

Equity theory and expectancy theory are both examples of process theories of motivation. This category of motivation theory considers how motivation occurs, rather than what motivates people. The IB syllabus specifies two process theories of motivation:

• John Stacey Adams’ equity theory

• Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory

“I’m a great believer in luck, and I find the harder I work, the more luck I have.” - Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), 3rd President of the USA

John Stacey Adams (b. 1925), a behavioural psychologist from Belgium, expressed his equity theory of motivation in 1963. His theory looked at the comparative view and awareness of what is deemed to be fair (equitable) in the workplace. He argued that equity is based on the logic of social comparisons of fairness in the workplace. If you have ever felt demotivated or dissatisfied by a sense of unfairness, then this theory will make sense to you.

Adams's equity theory suggests that motivation is more than just wages and salaries because employees compare the ratio of their input (effort) to output (rewards), and also make such comparisons with their colleagues in order to determine their own sense of fairness. In turn, this interpretation or evaluation will influence their levels of motivation.

People are motivated if their input (effort) is perceived to be fair (equitable) in comparison with the output (such as pay and rewards). For example, a student is unlikely to put in a huge amount of effort for a test or examination if s/he believes the effort will simply lead to a poor grade (the output).

Equity is also perceived from comparisons with the rewards for other people in the organization. Perceived inequalities cause demotivation in the workplace. For example, if some workers have a greater workload but are paid the same as their peers, these workers will become demotivated as their input (workload) to output (pay) ratio is perceived to be unfair, i.e. it is inequitable. Hence, equity theory helps to explain why financial rewards and working conditions alone do not determine motivation. The theory also suggests why internally promoting a particular person or rewarding them with a particular pay-rise or bonus can have a demotivating effect on others in the workplace.

However, note that the theory suggests it is fair to have wage differentials in the workplace. Highly productive workers should be paid more, otherwise there would not be any incentives to work harder or to seek promotions in the workplace.

Essentially, the theory suggests that employees are demotivated if they feel their inputs are greater than the outputs. By contrast, when people feel fairly or well treated they are more likely to be motivated.

Examples of interrelated inputs (or efforts) in Adams's equity theory include:

• Adaptability (flexibility)

• Commitment (loyalty)

• Determination

• Education

• Effort (hard work)

• Experience

• Personal sacrifices

• Skills

• Support for others

• Time

• Tolerance

• Training and development

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Examples of interrelated outputs (or outcomes) in Adams's equity theory include:

• Advancement (growth)

• Fringe payments (perks)

• Gratitude (appreciation) from others

• Job satisfaction

• Job security

• Purpose (the opportunity to make a difference)

• Recognition / praise / acknowledgement

• Remuneration (wages and salaries)

• Reputation

• Responsibility

• Salaries / wages

• Sense of achievement

• Status (rank)

• Stimulus (engagement and interest)

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However, critics of the theory say that perceptions of equity in the workplace will vary from organization to organization, and that the perceptions are subjective and a matter of personal opinion. What is perceived to be fair to one person or group of workers is not necessarily the case for others.

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 Teacher only box

You may wish to show this short video of an experiment to see what happens when a monkey gets cucumbers as a reward, but another ape gets grapes for doing exactly the same thing:

Download this poster to add to you notes and/or use as a revision tool with students. The poster has been created by my highly talented IBEN colleague Tahmidul Haq Ansari.

  Key concept - Ethics

Why are women, on average, paid less than men?

Is it fair that women - all across the world - are paid less than men for doing essentially the same work? Can this be regarded as equitable or ethical in any way whatsoever? Whilst there may be historical or cultural reasons for the gender pay gap, why do such disparities still exist in the 2020s?

The gender pay gap is evident across the planet

A gender gap exists if there is a difference between women and men reflected in social, political, intellectual, cultural, and economic activities, attitudes, and opportunities. Correcting the gender gap is important for sustainability (indeed, this is the 5th of the UN's Sustainable Development Goals). Hundreds of millions of people could come out of extreme poverty if women were given equal access rights to productive resources, for example.

  Watch this 19-minutes Netflix documentary about why women are paid less than men (on average), and answer the 16 accompanying questions. The video features Hillary Clinton and Anne-Marie Slaughter who discuss the cultural norms at the centre of the worldwide gender pay gap, including the so-called "motherhood penalty", and how countries like Iceland and Rwanda have made very contrasting strides in closing the gender pay gap.

Questions

1. In Poland, how many cents do women earn for every dollar a man earns?

2. Who is the prime minister of Iceland?

3. What percentage of women were working in factories and/or in offices throughout the 1950s?

4. What reasons were behind the pay gap throughout the 1950s and 1960s?

5. What is a major factor that dates back to the 50s and 60s that still affects pay / gender gaps?

6. What amount of the US, UK and progressive Scandinavian countries' population thinks women should work full time, according to surveys mentioned in the video?

7. Non-caregiver women earn what percentage of each dollar earned by men?

8. How many more children are looked after by single mothers than there are fathers in the US?

9. Who is the Rwandan ambassador of the United Nations?

10. Who is the women's rights advocate of Rwanda?

11. What is the minimum percentage of representatives of all levels of the Rwandan government that must be held by women?

12. What event happened in 1975 that contributed towards a shrink in the pay gap in Iceland?

13. What year did Iceland impose a law requiring employers having to provide new mothers with 3 months of paid leave and by how many months was this extended by in 1988?

14. What percentage do women earn for each dollar a man earns in Iceland?

15. What percentage of Americans think new fathers should work full time?

16. What percentage of the Rwandan population were women following the violence in 1994? 

 Teacher only box

Answers

Timings are shown for reference only

Q1.  In Poland, how many cents do women earn for every dollar a man earns?

0:20
91 Cents

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Q2.  Who is the prime minister of Iceland?

1:31
Katrin Jakobsdottir

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Q3.  What percentage of women were working in factories and/or in offices throughout the 1950s?

2:55
70 percent

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Q4.  What reasons were behind the pay gap throughout the 1950s and 1960s?

3:45
Lower workforce participation / education attainment (literacy rates) and/or “feminine” jobs

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Q5.  What is a major factor that dates back to the 50s and 60s that still affects pay / gender gaps?

5:04
Women raising children/being a mother

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Q6.  What amount of the US, UK and progressive Scandinavian countries' population thinks women should work full time, according to surveys mentioned in the video?

5:22
Only a fraction

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Q7.  Non-caregiver women earn what percentage of each dollar earned by men?

8:22
96%

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Q8.  How many more children are looked after by single mothers than there are fathers in the US?

9:15
3 times as many

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Q9.  Who is the Rwandan ambassador of the United Nations?

10:09
Valentine Rugwabzia

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Q10.  Who is the women's rights advocate of Rwanda?

10:33
Consolee Nishimwe

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Q11.  What is the minimum percentage of representatives of all levels of the Rwandan government that must be held by women?

12:02
30%

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Q12.  What event happened in 1975 that contributed towards a shrink in the pay gap in Iceland?

13:00
Major protests attempting to object the gender pay gap

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Q13.  What year did Iceland impose a law requiring employers having to provide new mothers with 3 months of paid leave and by how many months was this extended by in 1988?

14:11
1981, 6 months

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Q14.  What percentage do women earn for each dollar a man earns in Iceland?

15:30
90 cents

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Q15.  What percentage of Americans think new fathers should work full time?

5:35
70%

Perhaps the more interesting question is to consider the percentage of American that think new mothers should return to full-time employment, and when they should do so...

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Q16.  What percentage of the Rwandan population were women following the violence in 1994?

11:10
60-70%

This was a stimulus for far greater gender equality throughout the country.

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Expectancy theory (AO3)

"Great things come from hard work and perseverance. No Excuses."
- Kobe Bryant (1978 - 2020), American professional NBA basketball player

Victor H. Vroom (b. 1932) suggested that people only put in the effort to do a task if they expect that their role will help to achieve the required result. If workers feel they lack the ability, expertise or skill to achieve a target, then their level of effort will be lower (which reflects a lower level of motivation).

Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation (1964) showed that a variety of factors affect a person’s approach to work. However, it is assumed that workers will choose the route that offers the greatest probability of achieving their goals. So, if workers feel or believe that they will be appropriately rewarded for their efforts, the higher their productivity level tends to be. For example, performance-related pay (PRP) is a type of financial reward that can motivate workers as more effort should lead to an employee meeting or exceeding key performance indicators so they achieve a financial bonus.

Professor Vroom, from the Yale School of Management, found a positive correlation between a person’s efforts and his or her level of performance. He recognised that a worker’s performance is based on personal factors such as experience, skills, knowledge and self-belief. He argued that when faced with alternative approaches to dealing with a certain task, people choose the option with the greatest motivation force, consisting of three parts:

• Expectancy - People have different expectations about their capability and self-confidence in tackling a task. There are also different perceptions about the level of difficulty of the task.

• Instrumentality - People hold the perception that if they meet performance targets then they will be rewarded accordingly (or what they think is desirable as an award). Managers must ensure that promises are kept to gain people’s trust and therefore their level of motivation.

• Valence - Managers need to find out what staff value since people place different values on different rewards. Valence means rewarding people with what will give people a sense of satisfaction. In tackling a task, people consider whether it is worth any extra effort in terms of both intrinsic rewards (such as satisfaction and ego) and extrinsic rewards (such as money and promotion).

In essence, Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation advocates creating and maintaining positive links between the high level of effort (inputs) with appropriate rewards to generate high performance (outputs). Vroom expressed this as a motivation equation:

M = E × I × V

where M = Motivation, E = Expectancy, I = Instrumentality, and V = Valence.

What this means is that if any of the three elements of motivation is too low, the level of motivation will be low. Furthermore, if any of the elements is zero (i.e., missing), then there is no motivation to do a particular job.

To test your understanding of this HL topic (Motivation theory), have a go at the following true or false questions.

• Autonomy is a key determinant of motivation in Deci & Ryan's motivation theory, which refers to a person being self-sufficient to direct and have control of our own lives.

• Competence is a second key determinant of motivation in Deci & Ryan's motivation theory, which refers to a person's capacity and confidence to learn and do things to enhance their mastery in what they desire to do and the things that are important to them.

• Deci & Ryan’s self-determination theory suggests there are 3 basic factors (or intrinsic psychological needs) that motivate people: (i) autonomy, (ii) competence, and (iii) relatedness.

• Equity theory is J.S Adams’ theory of motivation which suggests that people make social comparisons of fairness in the workplace based on the ratio of their input (effort) to output (rewards).

• Expectancy theory is Victor H. Vroom's theory of motivation which suggests that people only put in the effort to do a task or job if there is an expectation and belief that their role will actually help to achieve the required result.

• John Stacey Adams’ equity theory of motivation suggests that people make social comparisons of fairness in the workplace, based on the ratio of their input (effort) to output (rewards).

• McClelland's acquired theory of needs suggests there are 3 types of needs that must be satisfied to boost morale: (i) the need for achievement, (ii) the need for power, and (iii) the need for affiliation.

• Process theories of motivation, such as equity theory and expectancy theory, are a category of motivation theory that considers how motivation occurs, rather than what motivates people.

• Relatedness is a third and final key determinant of motivation in Deci & Ryan's motivation theory, which refers to our connections with other people in society that provide people with a sense of security, as well as love and belonging.