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<title>DP Chemistry: 9.1 Oxidation & reduction</title>
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science </a></li><li><a href="../19519/metals-and-icp-spectroscopy-1.html">Metals and ICP spectroscopy</a></li><li><a href="../19541/catalysts--1.html">Catalysts </a></li><li><a href="../19580/liquid-crystals-1.html">Liquid crystals</a></li><li><a href="../19665/polymers--1.html">Polymers </a></li><li><a href="../19672/nanotechnology-1.html">Nanotechnology</a></li><li><a href="../19843/environmental-impact-plastics-1.html">Environmental impact - plastics</a></li><li><a href="../19858/superconducting-metals-x-ray-crystallography--1.html">Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography </a></li><li><a href="../19666/condensation-polymers-1.html">Condensation polymers</a></li><li><a href="../19916/environmental-impact-heavy-metals-1.html">Environmental impact - heavy metals</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19284/option-b--1.html" class="father">Option B </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19290/introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html">Introduction to biochemistry </a></li><li><a href="../19287/proteins-enzymes--1.html">Proteins & enzymes </a></li><li><a href="../19291/lipids-1.html">Lipids</a></li><li><a href="../19299/carbohydrates--1.html">Carbohydrates </a></li><li><a href="../19305/vitamins--1.html">Vitamins </a></li><li><a href="../19313/biochemistry-the-environment--1.html">Biochemistry & the environment </a></li><li><a href="../19336/proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html">Proteins & enzymes (AHL) </a></li><li><a href="../19347/nucleic-acids--1.html">Nucleic acids </a></li><li><a href="../19361/biological-pigments--1.html">Biological pigments </a></li><li><a href="../19366/stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html">Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19390/option-c--1.html" class="father">Option C </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19391/energy-sources-1.html">Energy sources</a></li><li><a href="../19407/fossil-fuels-1.html">Fossil fuels</a></li><li><a href="../19411/nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html">Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html">Solar energy</a></li><li><a href="../19437/environmental-impact-global-warming-1.html">Environmental impact - global warming</a></li><li><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" class="father">Option D</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html">Aspirin & penicillin </a></li><li><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html">Opiates</a></li><li><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html">Antiviral medications </a></li><li><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html">Nuclear medicine </a></li><li><a href="../19273/drug-detection-analysis--1.html">Drug detection & analysis </a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16592/practical-scheme-of-work-ia--1.html">Practical scheme of work & IA </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16682/internal-assessment-1.html" class="father">Internal Assessment</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18892/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li><a href="../18896/timing-organisation--1.html">Timing & organisation </a></li><li><a href="../18905/choosing-the-research-question-1.html">Choosing the research question</a></li><li><a href="../18946/personal-engagement-1.html">Personal engagement</a></li><li><a href="../18950/exploration-1.html">Exploration</a></li><li><a href="../18957/analysis-1.html">Analysis</a></li><li><a href="../18965/evaluation-1.html">Evaluation</a></li><li><a href="../18966/communication-1.html">Communication</a></li><li><a href="../19882/internal-standardization-of-the-ia-1.html">Internal standardization of the IA</a></li><li><a href="../19901/submitting-the-samples-for-moderation-2.html">Submitting the samples for moderation</a></li><li><a href="../33754/ten-suggestions-for-ias-using-secondary-data-1.html">Ten suggestions for IAs using secondary data</a></li><li><a href="../37544/gaining-full-marks-for-a-databased-ia--1.html">Gaining full marks for a databased IA </a></li><li><a href="../19506/ia-example-marking-exercise--1.html">IA example & marking exercise </a></li><li><a href="../23929/genuine-examples-of-moderated-ia-reports-1.html">Genuine examples of moderated IA reports</a></li><li><a href="../25234/examples-of-teacher-marked-ia-reports--1.html">Examples of teacher-marked IA reports </a></li><li><a href="../37542/history-of-internal-assessment-1.html">History of Internal Assessment</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16598/mandatory-laboratory-components-1.html" class="father">Mandatory laboratory components</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16613/formula-of-magnesium-oxide--1.html">Formula of magnesium oxide </a></li><li><a href="../16612/determining-the-mr-of-an-unknown-gas-1.html">Determining the <i>M</i><sub>r</sub> of an unknown gas</a></li><li><a href="../16615/acid-base-titrations--1.html">Acid-base titrations </a></li><li><a href="../16616/a-green-acid-base-practical-1.html">A green acid-base practical</a></li><li><a href="../16617/analysis-of-aspirin-tablets-1.html">Analysis of aspirin tablets</a></li><li><a href="../16618/caco3-in-egg-shells-1.html">CaCO<sub>3</sub> in egg shells</a></li><li><a href="../16644/enthalpy-changes-1.html">Enthalpy changes</a></li><li><a href="../16631/reaction-rates-1.html">Reaction rates</a></li><li><a href="../16635/rate-dependent-factors-1.html">Rate-dependent factors</a></li><li><a href="../16636/determining-ea-for-a-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>E</i><sub>a</sub> for a reaction</a></li><li><a href="../16637/iodination-of-propanone-1.html">Iodination of propanone</a></li><li><a href="../18144/titrations-with-a-ph-meter-1.html">Titrations with a pH meter</a></li><li><a href="../18355/redox-titration-with-kmno4--1.html">Redox titration with KMnO<sub>4</sub> </a></li><li><a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></li><li><a href="../16659/3-d-molecular-modelling--1.html">3-D molecular modelling </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17168/other-good-practicals-1.html" class="father">Other good practicals</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../17196/common-chemical-reactions-1.html">Common chemical reactions</a></li><li><a href="../227/elements-oxides-of-the-third-period--1.html">Elements & oxides of the third period </a></li><li><a href="../17239/the-halogens-1.html">The halogens</a></li><li><a href="../17162/boiling-points-of-mixtures-1.html">Boiling points of mixtures</a></li><li><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html">Polarity of molecules</a></li><li><a href="../18083/le-chateliers-principle--1.html">Le Chatelier's principle </a></li><li><a href="../19582/determining-kc-for-an-esterification-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>K</i><sub>c</sub> for an esterification reaction</a></li><li><a href="../18164/redox-reactions-of-vanadium--1.html">Redox reactions of vanadium </a></li><li><a href="../18351/chlorine-in-swimming-pools--1.html">Chlorine in swimming pools </a></li><li><a href="../18178/analysis-of-cuii-ions-in-solution--1.html">Analysis of Cu(II) ions in solution </a></li><li><a href="../18179/percentage-of-copper-in-brass-1.html">Percentage of copper in brass</a></li><li><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html">Electrolytic cells </a></li><li><a href="../18598/reactions-of-organic-compounds-1.html">Reactions of organic compounds</a></li><li><a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a></li><li><a href="../18784/preparation-of-13-dinitrobenzene--1.html">Preparation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene </a></li><li><a href="../19022/determination-of-an-organic-structure-1.html">Determination of an organic structure</a></li><li><a href="../19887/preparation-of-nylon-66-1.html">Preparation of nylon 6,6</a></li><li><a href="../19343/determination-of-vitamin-c-content--1.html">Determination of vitamin C content </a></li><li><a href="../19342/hydrolysis-of-starch--1.html">Hydrolysis of starch </a></li><li><a href="../19159/preparation-purification-of-aspirin--1.html">Preparation & purification of aspirin </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../18851/ict-in-practical-work-1.html" class="father">ICT in practical work</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18852/data-logging--1.html">Data logging </a></li><li><a href="../18853/software-for-graph-plotting--1.html">Software for graph plotting </a></li><li><a href="../18854/spreadsheets-for-data-processing--1.html">Spreadsheets for data processing </a></li><li><a href="../18855/databases-1.html">Databases</a></li><li><a href="../18856/computer-modelling-simulations--1.html">Computer modelling & simulations </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16594/group-4-project-1.html" class="father">Group 4 Project</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16595/practicalities-1.html">Practicalities</a></li><li><a href="../16596/reflective-statement--2.html">Reflective statement </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16666/a-new-laboratory-1.html">A new laboratory?</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16284/exams-1.html">Exams</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16286/essential-facts-1.html" class="father">Essential Facts</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16287/objectives-command-terms-1.html">Objectives & command terms</a></li><li><a href="../16288/grade-descriptors-1.html">Grade descriptors</a></li><li><a href="../16289/grade-boundaries-1.html">Grade boundaries</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16302/paper-1-multiple-choice-1.html" class="father">Paper 1 (Multiple Choice)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16303/advice-to-students-paper-1-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 1)</a></li><li><a href="../31515/practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16305/paper-2-1.html" class="father">Paper 2</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16306/advice-to-students-paper-2-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 2)</a></li><li><a href="../16307/areas-of-difficulty-1.html">Areas of difficulty</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16313/paper-3--1.html" class="father">Paper 3 </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16314/advice-to-students-paper-3-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 3)</a></li><li><a href="../16342/data-response-questions-1.html">Data response questions</a></li><li><a href="../20054/experimental-work-questions-1.html">Experimental work questions</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16324/the-examination-process-1.html" class="father">The examination process</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16316/setting-the-exam-papers-1.html">Setting the exam papers</a></li><li><a href="../16317/predicted-grades-1.html">Predicted grades</a></li><li><a href="../16318/marking-the-papers-1.html">Marking the papers</a></li><li><a href="../16319/commenting-on-the-exams-1.html">Commenting on the exams</a></li><li><a href="../16320/grade-awarding-1.html">Grade Awarding</a></li><li><a href="../16321/enquiry-upon-results-1.html">Enquiry upon results</a></li><li><a href="../16322/chief-examiners-report-1.html">Chief Examiner's report</a></li><li><a href="../16323/retaking-the-exam-1.html">Retaking the exam</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16325/faqs-1.html">FAQs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../3147/ib-core-1.html">IB Core</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../3149/learner-profile-1.html">Learner Profile</a></li><li><a href="../21735/extended-essays--1.html" class="father">Extended Essays </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../21736/overview--1.html">Overview </a></li><li><a href="../21780/responsibilities-1.html">Responsibilities</a></li><li><a href="../21790/resources-1.html">Resources</a></li><li><a href="../21800/research-1.html">Research</a></li><li><a href="../21804/writing-the-essay-1.html">Writing the essay</a></li><li><a href="../21810/assessment-1.html">Assessment</a></li><li><a href="../22434/summary-of-advice--1.html">Summary of advice </a></li><li><a href="../25272/faqs--1.html">FAQs </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../307/theory-of-knowledge-tok-1.html" class="father">Theory of Knowledge (TOK)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../41171/the-12-tok-concepts-1.html">The 12 TOK concepts</a></li><li><a href="../3507/why-tok-chemistry-1.html">Why TOK & Chemistry?</a></li><li><a href="../3505/a-modern-paradigm-1.html">A modern paradigm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17783/fast-track-to-tests-questions-1.html">Fast track to tests & questions</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../17784/sl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24351/sl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31519/sl-practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">SL Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li><li><a href="../17786/sl-questions-on-each-sub-topic-1.html">SL Questions on each sub-topic</a></li><li><a href="../20431/sl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">SL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17792/sl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">SL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24897/sl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics--1.html">SL Quizzes on option sub-topics </a></li><li><a href="../17785/hl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24352/hl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31520/hl-practice-paper-1-exams--1.html">HL Practice Paper 1 exams </a></li><li><a href="../17787/hl-questions-on-each-sub-topic--1.html">HL Questions on each sub-topic </a></li><li><a href="../20428/hl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">HL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17793/hl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">HL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24973/hl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics-1.html">HL Quizzes on option sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../41573/printable-versions-of-written-tasks--1.html">Printable versions of written tasks </a></li></ul></li><li class="selected"><a href="../41465/complete-course-for-students--2.html">Complete course for students </a><ul class="level-1"><li 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14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27960/topics-2-12-atomic-structure-1.html" title="Topics 2 & 12 : Atomic structure">Topics 2 & 12 : Atomic structure</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27961/21-the-nuclear-atom--1.html" title="2.1 The nuclear atom ">2.1 The nuclear atom </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27962/22-electron-configuration--1.html" title="2.2 Electron configuration ">2.2 Electron configuration </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27963/121-electrons-in-atoms--1.html" title="12.1 Electrons in atoms ">12.1 Electrons in atoms </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27965/topics-3-13-periodicity-1.html" title="Topics 3 & 13 : Periodicity">Topics 3 & 13 : Periodicity</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27966/31-the-periodic-table-1.html" title="3.1 The periodic table">3.1 The periodic table</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27967/32-periodic-trends--1.html" title="3.2 Periodic trends ">3.2 Periodic trends </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27968/131-first-row-d-block-elements-1.html" title="13.1 First-row d-block elements">13.1 First-row d-block elements</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27970/132-coloured-complexes-1.html" title="13.2 Coloured complexes">13.2 Coloured complexes</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27971/topics-4-14-chemical-bonding-structure-1.html" title="Topics 4 & 14 : Chemical bonding & structure">Topics 4 & 14 : Chemical bonding & structure</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27972/41-ionic-bonding-structure--1.html" title="4.1 Ionic bonding & structure ">4.1 Ionic bonding & structure </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27973/42-covalent-bonding-1.html" title="4.2 Covalent bonding">4.2 Covalent bonding</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27974/43-covalent-structures-1--1.html" title="4.3 Covalent structures (1) ">4.3 Covalent structures (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27980/43-covalent-structures-2--1.html" title="4.3 Covalent structures (2) ">4.3 Covalent structures (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i 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15 : Energetics/thermochemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27989/51-measuring-energy-changes-1.html" title="5.1 Measuring energy changes">5.1 Measuring energy changes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27991/52-hesss-law-1.html" title="5.2 Hess's Law">5.2 Hess's Law</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27992/53-bond-enthalpies--1.html" title="5.3 Bond enthalpies ">5.3 Bond enthalpies </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27993/151-energy-cycles-1.html" title="15.1 Energy cycles">15.1 Energy cycles</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27994/152-entropy-spontaneity-1.html" title="15.2 Entropy & spontaneity">15.2 Entropy & spontaneity</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27995/topics-6-16-chemical-kinetics-1.html" title="Topics 6 & 16 : Chemical kinetics">Topics 6 & 16 : Chemical kinetics</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27996/61-collision-theory-rates-of-reaction-1.html" title="6.1 Collision theory & rates of reaction">6.1 Collision theory & rates of reaction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27997/161-rate-expression-reaction-mechanism-1.html" title="16.1 Rate expression & reaction mechanism">16.1 Rate expression & reaction mechanism</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27998/162-activation-energy-1.html" title="16.2 Activation energy">16.2 Activation energy</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28001/topics-7-17-equilibrium--1.html" title="Topics 7 & 17 : Equilibrium ">Topics 7 & 17 : Equilibrium </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27999/71-equilibrium-1.html" title="7.1 Equilibrium">7.1 Equilibrium</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28000/171-equilibrium-law-1.html" title="17.1 Equilibrium law">17.1 Equilibrium law</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28017/topics-8-18-acids-and-bases--1.html" title="Topics 8 & 18 : Acids and bases ">Topics 8 & 18 : Acids and bases </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28002/81-theories-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="8.1 Theories of acids & bases">8.1 Theories of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28010/82-properties-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="8.2 Properties of acids & bases">8.2 Properties of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28011/83-ph-scale-1.html" title="8.3 pH scale">8.3 pH scale</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28012/84-strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="8.4 Strong & weak acids & bases">8.4 Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28013/85-acid-deposition--1.html" title="8.5 Acid deposition ">8.5 Acid deposition </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28014/181-lewis-acids-bases--1.html" title="18.1 Lewis acids & bases ">18.1 Lewis acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28015/182-calculations-involving-acids-bases--1.html" title="18.2 Calculations involving acids & bases ">18.2 Calculations involving acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28016/183-ph-titration-curves-1.html" title="18.3 pH titration curves">18.3 pH titration curves</a></li></ul><li class="ancestor parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right fa-rotate-90"></i><a href="../28031/topics-9-19-redox-process-1.html" title="Topics 9 & 19 : Redox process">Topics 9 & 19 : Redox process</a></li><ul class="level-2 expanded"><li class="current" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="91-oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="9.1 Oxidation & reduction">9.1 Oxidation & reduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28022/92-electrochemical-cells-1.html" title="9.2 Electrochemical cells">9.2 Electrochemical cells</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28023/191-electrochemical-cells-ahl-1.html" title="19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL)">19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28061/topics-10-20-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="Topics 10 & 20 : Organic chemistry">Topics 10 & 20 : Organic chemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28042/101-fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry">10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28043/1021-alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="10.2(1) Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">10.2(1) Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28044/1022-alcohols--1.html" title="10.2(2) Alcohols ">10.2(2) Alcohols </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28047/1023-halogenoalkanes-benzene-1.html" title="10.2(3) Halogenoalkanes & benzene">10.2(3) Halogenoalkanes & benzene</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28050/2011-nucleophilic-substitution--1.html" title="20.1(1) Nucleophilic substitution ">20.1(1) Nucleophilic substitution </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28051/2012-electrophilic-addition--1.html" title="20.1(2) Electrophilic addition ">20.1(2) Electrophilic addition </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28053/2013-electrophilic-substitution-1.html" title="20.1(3) Electrophilic substitution">20.1(3) Electrophilic substitution</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28054/2014-reduction-reactions--1.html" title="20.1(4) Reduction reactions ">20.1(4) Reduction reactions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28056/202-synthetic-routes--1.html" title="20.2 Synthetic routes ">20.2 Synthetic routes </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28059/203-stereoisomerism--1.html" title="20.3 Stereoisomerism ">20.3 Stereoisomerism </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28038/topics-11-21-measurement-data-processing-analysis-1.html" title="Topics 11 & 21 : Measurement, data processing & analysis">Topics 11 & 21 : Measurement, data processing & analysis</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28032/111-uncertainty-errors--1.html" title="11.1 Uncertainty & errors ">11.1 Uncertainty & errors </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28033/112-graphical-techniques-1.html" title="11.2 Graphical techniques">11.2 Graphical techniques</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28034/113-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-1.html" title="11.3 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds">11.3 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28039/211-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl-1.html" title="21.1 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)">21.1 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28074/option-a-materials--1.html" title="Option A : Materials ">Option A : Materials </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28062/a1-introduction-to-materials-science--1.html" title="A.1 Introduction to materials science ">A.1 Introduction to materials science </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28063/a2-metals-and-icp-spectroscopy-1.html" title="A.2 Metals and ICP spectroscopy">A.2 Metals and ICP spectroscopy</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28065/a3-catalysts--1.html" title="A.3 Catalysts ">A.3 Catalysts </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28066/a4-liquid-crystals-1.html" title="A.4 Liquid crystals">A.4 Liquid crystals</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28067/a5-polymers-1.html" title="A.5 Polymers">A.5 Polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28069/a6-nanotechnology-1.html" title="A.6 Nanotechnology">A.6 Nanotechnology</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28070/a7-environmental-impact-plastics-1.html" title="A.7 Environmental impact - plastics">A.7 Environmental impact - plastics</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28071/a8-superconducting-metals-x-ray-crystallography--1.html" title="A.8 Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography ">A.8 Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28072/a9-condensation-polymers-1.html" title="A.9 Condensation polymers">A.9 Condensation polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28073/a10-environmental-impact-heavy-metals-1.html" title="A.10 Environmental impact - heavy metals">A.10 Environmental impact - heavy metals</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28087/option-b-biochemistry-1.html" title="Option B : Biochemistry">Option B : Biochemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28076/b1-introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html" title="B.1 Introduction to biochemistry ">B.1 Introduction to biochemistry </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28078/b2-proteins-enzymes-1.html" title="B.2 Proteins & enzymes">B.2 Proteins & enzymes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28079/b3-lipids-1.html" title="B.3 Lipids">B.3 Lipids</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28080/b4-carbohydrates-1.html" title="B.4 Carbohydrates">B.4 Carbohydrates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28081/b5-vitamins-1.html" title="B.5 Vitamins">B.5 Vitamins</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28082/b6-biochemistry-the-environment-1.html" title="B.6 Biochemistry & the environment">B.6 Biochemistry & the environment</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28083/b7-proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html" title="B.7 Proteins & enzymes (AHL) ">B.7 Proteins & enzymes (AHL) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28084/b8-nucleic-acids-1.html" title="B.8 Nucleic acids">B.8 Nucleic acids</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28085/b9-biological-pigments-1.html" title="B.9 Biological pigments">B.9 Biological pigments</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28086/b10-stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html" title="B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules">B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28098/option-c-energy--1.html" title="Option C : Energy ">Option C : Energy </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28088/c1-energy-sources--1.html" title="C.1 Energy sources ">C.1 Energy sources </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28089/c2-fossil-fuels-1.html" title="C.2 Fossil fuels">C.2 Fossil fuels</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28090/c3-nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html" title="C.3 Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions">C.3 Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28091/c4-solar-energy--1.html" title="C.4 Solar energy ">C.4 Solar energy </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28094/c5-environmental-impact-global-warming--1.html" title="C.5 Environmental impact - global warming ">C.5 Environmental impact - global warming </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28095/c6-electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html" title="C.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells">C.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28096/c7-nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html" title="C.7 Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) ">C.7 Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28097/c8-photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html" title="C.8 Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs">C.8 Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28109/option-d-medicinal-chemistry-1.html" title="Option D : Medicinal chemistry">Option D : Medicinal chemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28099/d1-pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html" title="D.1 Pharmaceutical products & drug action ">D.1 Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28100/d2-aspirin-penicillin-1.html" title="D.2 Aspirin & penicillin">D.2 Aspirin & penicillin</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28101/d3-opiates-1.html" title="D.3 Opiates">D.3 Opiates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28103/d4-ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html" title="D.4 pH regulation of the stomach">D.4 pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28102/d5-antiviral-medications-1.html" title="D.5 Antiviral medications">D.5 Antiviral medications</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28104/d6-environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html" title="D.6 Environmental impact of some medications">D.6 Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28105/d7-taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study--1.html" title="D.7 Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study ">D.7 Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28107/d8-nuclear-medicine--1.html" title="D.8 Nuclear medicine ">D.8 Nuclear medicine </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28108/d9-drug-detection-analysis-1.html" title="D.9 Drug detection & analysis">D.9 Drug detection & analysis</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41553/practical-work-including-ia-group-4-project--1.html" title="Practical work (including IA & Group 4 Project) ">Practical work (including IA & Group 4 Project) </a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41528/internal-assessment-1.html" title="Internal Assessment">Internal Assessment</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41529/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html" title="'Scaffolding' the investigation">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41531/choosing-the-research-question-1.html" title="Choosing the research question">Choosing the research question</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41532/personal-engagement--1.html" title="Personal engagement ">Personal engagement </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41533/exploration-1.html" title="Exploration">Exploration</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41544/analysis--1.html" title="Analysis ">Analysis </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41545/significant-figures--1.html" title="Significant figures ">Significant figures </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41547/error-uncertainty-1.html" title="Error & uncertainty">Error & uncertainty</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41548/evaluation--1.html" title="Evaluation ">Evaluation </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41549/communication-1.html" title="Communication">Communication</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41550/genuine-examples-of-marked-ia-reports--1.html" title="Genuine examples of marked IA reports ">Genuine examples of marked IA reports </a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41657/group-4-project-1.html" title="Group 4 Project">Group 4 Project</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41387/approaches-to-learning--1.html" title="Approaches to learning ">Approaches to learning </a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41380/thinking-skills-1.html" title="Thinking skills">Thinking skills</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41383/communication-skills-1.html" title="Communication skills">Communication skills</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41384/social-skills--1.html" title="Social skills ">Social skills </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41385/self-management-skills-1.html" title="Self-management skills">Self-management skills</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41386/research-skills-1.html" title="Research skills">Research skills</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41382/reflection-skills--1.html" title="Reflection skills ">Reflection skills </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41488/the-nature-of-science-1.html" title="The Nature of Science">The Nature of Science</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41489/key-terms-concepts--1.html" title="Key terms & concepts ">Key terms & concepts </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41492/how-the-elements-were-named--1.html" title="How the elements were named ">How the elements were named </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41490/nos-critical-thinking-1.html" title="NOS & Critical Thinking">NOS & Critical Thinking</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41493/the-culture-of-chemistry--1.html" title="The Culture of Chemistry ">The Culture of Chemistry </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41500/culture-of-chemistry-1-1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (1)">Culture of Chemistry (1)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41501/culture-of-chemistry-2-1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (2)">Culture of Chemistry (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41502/culture-of-chemistry-3-1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (3)">Culture of Chemistry (3)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41503/culture-of-chemistry-4--1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (4) ">Culture of Chemistry (4) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41504/culture-of-chemistry-5-1.html" title="Culture of Chemistry (5)">Culture of Chemistry (5)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41494/nature-of-science-questions--1.html" title="Nature of Science questions ">Nature of Science questions </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41498/nos-question-example-1--1.html" title="NoS question - Example 1 ">NoS question - Example 1 </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41499/nos-question-example-2--1.html" title="NoS question - Example 2 ">NoS question - Example 2 </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41401/external-assessment-exams-1.html" title="External assessment (Exams)">External assessment (Exams)</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41403/essential-facts--1.html" title="Essential Facts ">Essential Facts </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41404/objectives-command-terms--1.html" title="Objectives & command terms ">Objectives & command terms </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41408/grade-boundaries--1.html" title="Grade boundaries ">Grade boundaries </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41406/grade-descriptors--1.html" title="Grade descriptors ">Grade descriptors </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41451/your-final-grade-not-good-enough-for-you--1.html" title="Your final grade not good enough for you? ">Your final grade not good enough for you? </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41409/paper-1-multiple-choice--1.html" title="Paper 1 (Multiple Choice) ">Paper 1 (Multiple Choice) </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41415/advice-to-students-paper-1--1.html" title="Advice to students (Paper 1) ">Advice to students (Paper 1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41416/practice-paper-1-exams--1.html" title="Practice Paper 1 exams ">Practice Paper 1 exams </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41417/paper-2--1.html" title="Paper 2 ">Paper 2 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41418/advice-to-students-paper-2--1.html" title="Advice to students (Paper 2) ">Advice to students (Paper 2) </a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41419/areas-of-difficulty--1.html" title="Areas of difficulty ">Areas of difficulty </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41426/understanding-the-activity-series-1.html" title="Understanding the activity series">Understanding the activity series</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41422/vsepr-1.html" title="VSEPR">VSEPR</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41421/ie-graphs--1.html" title="IE graph(s) ">IE graph(s) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41420/misuse-of-formulas--1.html" title="Misuse of formulas ">Misuse of formulas </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41425/manipulating-equilibrium-constants--1.html" title="Manipulating equilibrium constants ">Manipulating equilibrium constants </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41428/curly-arrows-1.html" title="'Curly arrows'">'Curly arrows'</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41424/understanding-and-using-g--1.html" title="Understanding and using ΔG ">Understanding and using Δ<em>G </em> </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41430/factors-affecting-the-rate-of-nucleophilic-substitution-reaction-1.html" title="Factors affecting the rate of nucleophilic substitution reactions ">Factors affecting the rate of nucleophilic substitution reactions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41427/using-electrode-potentials--1.html" title="Using electrode potentials ">Using electrode potentials </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41429/understanding-hybridization--1.html" title="Understanding hybridization ">Understanding hybridization </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41431/paper-3--1.html" title="Paper 3 ">Paper 3 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41432/advice-to-students-paper-3--1.html" title="Advice to students (Paper 3) ">Advice to students (Paper 3) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41433/data-response-questions--1.html" title="Data response questions ">Data response questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41441/experimental-work-questions--1.html" title="Experimental work questions ">Experimental work questions </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41662/extended-essay--1.html" title="Extended Essay ">Extended Essay </a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41685/preparation-1.html" title="Preparation">Preparation</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41663/aims-objectives-1.html" title="Aims & objectives">Aims & objectives</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41665/your-responsibilities-1.html" title="Your responsibilities">Your responsibilities</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41785/choosing-the-subject-1.html" title="Choosing the subject">Choosing the subject</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41686/researching--1.html" title="Researching ">Researching </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42069/choosing-the-research-topic--1.html" title="Choosing the research topic ">Choosing the research topic </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42070/framing-the-research-question-1.html" title="Framing the Research Question">Framing the Research Question</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42072/researching-your-essay-1.html" title="Researching your Essay">Researching your Essay</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42097/reflections-on-planning-and-progress--1.html" title="Reflections on planning and progress ">Reflections on planning and progress </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42075/writing-the-essay-1.html" title="Writing the essay">Writing the essay</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42077/correct-referencing-and-bibliography-1.html" title="Correct referencing and bibliography">Correct referencing and bibliography</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42092/checklist--1.html" title="Checklist ">Checklist </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41687/assessment-1.html" title="Assessment">Assessment</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42166/grading-system-1.html" title="Grading system">Grading system</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42159/criterion-a--1.html" title="Criterion A ">Criterion A </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42161/criterion-b-1.html" title="Criterion B">Criterion B</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42163/criterion-c-1.html" title="Criterion C">Criterion C</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../42164/criterion-d--1.html" title="Criterion D ">Criterion D </a></li><li class="" 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</div><section id="main-content"><div id="toc-1672969255" class="toc"><a href="#" class="toc-switcher" title="Show table of contents"><small><i class="fa fa-reorder"></i> Table of contents <span class="pull-right"><i class="fa fa-chevron-down"></i></span></small></a></div><p>Written specifically for students to provide help and support for the IB Diploma chemistry <span data-scayt-word="programme" data-wsc-lang="en_US">programme</span> this page provides full coverage of the syllabus content of Topic 9.1 Oxidation & reduction. It encourages you to think critically and provides many questions with full worked answers so that you can monitor and improve your knowledge and understanding.</p><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><h2><img alt="" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/student-learning/firework-display.png" style="width: 2px; height: 1px;"><img alt="" height="21" src="../../../img/tib-icons/standard-level-32-1.png" title="" width="21"> <img alt="" height="21" src="../../../img/tib-icons/higher-level-32-1.png" title="" width="21"> Learning outcomes</h2><p><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/student-learning/firework-display.png" style="float: right; width: 450px; height: 318px;" title="Image from www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-42528945">After studying this topic you should be able to:</p><p><strong><strong>Understand</strong></strong></p><div title="Page 72"><div><div><div><ul><li>There are different ways of considering oxidation and reduction. It can be considered in terms of gain or loss of oxygen, loss or gain of hydrogen, transfer of electrons or change in oxidation state.</li><li><p>Oxidizing agents are reduced and reducing agents are oxidized.</p></li><li><p>Transition metals and most non-metals can have variable oxidation numbers and oxidation states.</p></li><li><p>Metals are ranked according to the ease with which they undergo oxidation in the activity series.</p></li><li><p>Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which is used as a measure of the degree of pollution in a water sample, can be measured by the Winkler method.</p></li></ul><p><strong>Apply your knowledge to:</strong></p><div title="Page 72"><div><div><ul><li>Deduce the oxidation states of atoms in an ion or a compound.</li><li>Deduce the name of a transition metal compound from a given formula.</li><li>Apply oxidation numbers using Roman numerals.</li><li>Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents and the species that are oxidized and reduced in redox reactions.</li><li>Deduce the balanced equation for a redox reaction using half-equations in acidic or neutral solutions.</li><li>Deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from the activity series or reaction data.</li><li>Solve problems involving redox titrations.</li><li>Apply the Winkler Method to calculate BOD.<hr class="hidden"></li></ul></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="blueBg"><h2>Relationships & vocabulary</h2><h4>Nature of science</h4><p>Scientists often broaden similarities to general principles. The way in which the definition of redox has changed from one involving just oxygen and hydrogen to one involving the transfer of electrons and a change in oxidation states is a good example of this.</p><h4>International-mindedness</h4><p>The United Nations recognises access to a supply of clean drinking water as a fundamental human right. Even so, over one billion people in the world are thought to lack this basic provision. Oxidizing agents, such as chlorine or ozone, are commonly used to disinfect water by killing microbial pathogens.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>For more examples and links to <em>International mindedness, Theory of knowledge, utilization etc. </em>see <a href="../18349/topics-9-19--1.html" title="Core & AHL » Incorporating IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc. » Topics 4 & 14 ">separate page</a> which covers all of Topics 9 & 19: Redox processes.</p><hr class="hidden"><h4>Vocabulary</h4><table><tbody><tr><td>oxidation</td><td>reduction<br> </td><td>redox</td></tr><tr><td>oxidation state</td><td>oxidation number</td><td>Roman numerals</td></tr></tbody></table><hr class="hidden"></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="greenBg"><h2 id="header-6">Learning slides</h2><p>You can use this slide gallery for learning or for reviewing concepts and information. It covers all the key points in the syllabus for this sub-topic.</p><div id="myCarousel-15" class="carousel slide" data-id="307"><!-- Carousel items --><div class="carousel-inner"><div class="active item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/911.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/911.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/912.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/912.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/913.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/913.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/914.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/914.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/9151.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9151.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/9161.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9161.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/917.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/917.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/918.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/918.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/919.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/919.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/9110.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9110.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/9111.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9111.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/9112.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9112.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/9113.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9113.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/9114.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9114.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/9115.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9115.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="/files/tib-galleries/3-307/screenshot-2022-03-01-at-153244.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="/files/tib-galleries/3-307/screenshot-2022-03-01-at-153244.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-307/9117.png" rel="gallery-307" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9117.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Oxidation & reduction: </p></div></div></div><!-- Carousel nav --><a class="carousel-control left" href="#myCarousel-15" data-slide="prev">‹</a><a class="carousel-control right" href="#myCarousel-15" data-slide="next">›</a><div class="tib-indicators"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 10px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/911-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/912-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/913-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/914-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9151-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9161-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/917-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/918-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/919-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9110-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9111-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9112-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9113-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9114-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9115-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="/files/tib-galleries/3-307/screenshot-2022-03-01-at-153244-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-307/9117-thumb128.jpg"></div></div><p> </p></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="pinkBg"><div><h2>Something to think about</h2><p><strong>1. Definitions of oxidation</strong></p><p>In the syllabus it states "Oxidation and reduction can be considered in terms of oxygen gain/hydrogen loss, electron transfer or change in oxidation number". It is worth examining this statement.</p><p>The combustion of hydrogen that occurred during the Hindenburg zeppelin airship disaster in 1937 killed 35 people. It was clearly an example of oxidation as oxygen added to hydrogen to form water.</p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noborder" height="235" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core%20and%20AHL/redox/hydrogen%20combustion.jpg" title="Hydrogen fuel burning in the Hindenburg disaster in 1937" width="300"></p><hr class="hidden"><p>In fact two of the classic examples of oxidation are the combustion of hydrogen to form water and the combustion of carbon to form carbon dioxide. Much of the energy we use in the World comes from burning a combination of these two elements in the form of hydrocarbons. Many text books define oxidation in terms of electron loss and reduction in terms of electron gain but are any electrons actually transferred when hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water or when carbon or hydrocarbons burn?</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noborder" height="92" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core%20and%20AHL/redox/Formation%20of%20water.jpg" width="410"></p><p>In all of these examples it is obvious that the hydrogen and the carbon are oxidized as oxygen is added and yet in none of these cases does the substance being oxidized lose any electrons. You already know from sub-topic <a href="../27973/42-covalent-bonding-1.html" title="4.2 Covalent bonding">4.2 Covalent bonding</a> that each hydrogen atom shares two electrons in hydrogen gas, hydrocarbons and in water (the oxidized product). Similarly each carbon atom shares eight electrons in graphite and eight electrons in hydrocarbons and in carbon dioxide, the oxidized product, it still shares eight electrons. You should understand that although the loss of electrons is always oxidation the converse is not always true. You can read more about this in the <a href="../18349/topics-9-19-tok-etc.html" title="Topics 9 & 19 (TOK etc)">TOK section in Topics 9 & 19</a>.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>2. Why is lithium above potassium in the activity series?</strong></p><p>The activity series for students to use is given in Section 25 of the IB data booklet. Students and teachers know that potassium reacts more vigorously than lithium when it is added to water. so why is lithium listed above potassium in the activity series? For a full explanation of this and how the activities series for metals differs from the reactivity series for metals see the separate page on <a href="../31229/understanding-the-activity-series.html" title="Exams » Paper 2 » Areas of difficulty » Understanding the activity series">Understanding the activity series</a>.</p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>3. A practical example.</strong></p><p>The syllabus includes one very specific environmental application of redox processes - the determination of dissolved oxygen in water. In fact it goes slightly further than this as it relates the amount of dissolved oxygen to the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Although this provides a good example to test whether you can apply redox equations when performing calculations it is rather out of date as modern methods to determine BOD bypass this procedure and simply use an oxygen probe (sensor) connected to a data logger (see other resources 3 below).</p><p><img alt="" class="right noborder" height="448" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Options/Option E/Icelandic waterfall.jpg" title="An Icelandic waterfall- one obvious way in which water can become reoxygenated." width="336">The fact that oxygen dissolves in water is essential for aquatic life. The solubility of oxygen in water depends on several factors with the two most important ones being the salinity of the water and the temperature – an increase in both lowers the amount of dissolved oxygen. The amount of dissolved oxygen present also depends upon the amount of algae or organic material in the water both of which use up oxygen. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to decompose organic matter in water at a fixed temperature over a certain time period (usually quoted at 20 <sup>o</sup>C over five days). It is a useful measure to determine the degree of pollution of a water sample. Water with a BOD of more than 5 ppm is generally considered polluted. Even water with a high BOD can still recover and be reoxygenated if the water is fast flowing.</p><p>The amount of dissolved oxygen is traditionally determined using the Winkler method. This was devised by the Hungarian Lajos Winkler (1863-1939) for his Ph.D. thesis in 1888. Excess manganese(II) sulfate and hydroxide ions are added to a known volume of the water sample. The dissolved oxygen oxidises the manganese(II) ions to give a brown precipitate (usually considered to be a hydrated form of manganese(IV) oxide). In the presence of acid this then oxidises iodide ions into iodine and is itself reduced back to manganese(II). The iodine produced is titrated with standard sodium thiosulfate solution using starch as the indicator.</p><p style="margin-left:36.0pt;">2Mn<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + O<sub>2</sub>(aq) + 4OH<sup>−</sup> (aq) → 2MnO<sub>2</sub>(s) + 2H<sub>2</sub>O(l)</p><p style="margin-left:36.0pt;">(Note that some texts give the formula of the Mn(IV) product as MnO(OH)<sub>2</sub> but this does not affect the overall stoichiometry.)</p><p style="margin-left:36.0pt;">MnO<sub>2</sub>(s) + 2I<sup>−</sup>(aq) + 4H<sup>+</sup>(aq)→ Mn<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>(aq) + I<sub>2</sub>(aq) + 2H<sub>2</sub>O(l)</p><p style="margin-left:36.0pt;">2S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sup>2−</sup>(aq) + I<sub>2</sub>(aq) → S<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub><sup>2−</sup>(aq) + 2I<sup>−</sup>(aq)</p><p>By following the stoichiometry you can see that one mole of dissolved oxygen is equivalent to four moles of thiosulfate ions.</p><hr class="hidden"></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="yellowBg"><h2 id="header-8">Test your understanding of this topic</h2><p><em>(Note that your teacher may have restricted your access to some or all of these questions and worked answers if they are going to use them as a class test or set them as an assignment.)</em></p><hr class="hidden"><p>For ten 'quiz' multiple choice questions with the answers explained see <a href="../24725/mc-test-oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Oxidation & reduction » MC test: Oxidation & reduction">MC test: Oxidation & reduction</a>.</p><p>For three different sets of short-answer questions see <a href="../41033/oxidation-reduction-questions-1--1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Oxidation & reduction » Oxidation & reduction questions (1) ">Oxidation & reduction questions (1)</a>, <a href="../41034/oxidation-reduction-questions-2-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Oxidation & reduction » Oxidation & reduction questions (2)">Oxidation & reduction questions (2)</a> and <a href="../41035/oxidation-reduction-questions-3-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 9 & 19 » Oxidation & reduction » Oxidation & reduction questions (3)">Oxidation & reduction questions (3)</a>.</p><hr class="hidden"></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="blueBg"><h3><span style="font-weight: bold;">More resources</span></h3><p><strong>1.</strong> A video that shows how oxidation states change across the periodic table (although the terms oxidation states and numbers are interchanged at times).</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/EHe8-AFMsMA?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/EHe8-AFMsMA" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-1" name="video-1"> </span> Oxidation states (I)</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>2.</strong> Deducing whether an element has been oxidized or reduced during a redox reaction using oxidation states (note that the video uses oxidation numbers rather than states as this was from the old programme).</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/eBk2sd7nnPc?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/eBk2sd7nnPc" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-2" name="video-2"> </span> Oxidation states (II)</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>3. </strong>The old fashioned Winkler method may be good but it is much easier these days to use a dissolved oxygen probe. The video shows how easy it is to use the Nexsens dissolved oxygen sensor.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/H-apFY1HMnA?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-apFY1HMnA">Dissolved oxygen sensor <img src="http://www.thinkib.net/img/icons/video.png"></a></p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"></p></div></section></article><section id="media-extras"><div class="page-actions no-print navbar inline hidden-desktop"><div class="navbar-inner"><ul class="nav"><li><a class="presentation" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-desktop"></i></a></li><li><a class="print-section-blog" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-print"></i></a></li><li><a class="page-bookmarker" data-ticket="IB Docs (2) Team" data-pid="28021" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star"></i></a></li><li><a class="personal-notes" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-file-text"></i></a></li><li><a class="" data-toggle="modal" href="#modal-feedback" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></a></li><li class="dropdown"><a class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-target="#" href="#"><i class="fa fa-share-alt"></i></a><ul class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/share?text=%229.1+Oxidation+%26+reduction%22+-+via+%40InThinker+%23chemistry%0A&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F28021%2F91-oxidation-reduction"><i class="fa fa-twitter-square"></i><span>Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F28021%2F91-oxidation-reduction&t=9.1+Oxidation+&+reduction"><i class="fa fa-facebook-square"></i><span>Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F28021%2F91-oxidation-reduction"><i class="fa fa-linkedin-square"></i><span>LinkedIn</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="https://plus.google.com/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F28021%2F91-oxidation-reduction"><i class="fa fa-google-plus-square"></i><span>Google +</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="mailto:?subject=9.1 Oxidation & reduction&body=Written specifically for students to provide help and support for the IB Diploma chemistry programme this page provides full coverage of the syllabus content of Topic 9.1 Oxidation & reduction. 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