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Feedback</button> </div> </div> <div class="col-md-9" id="main-column"> <h1 class="page_title"> Nuclear physics <a href="#" class="mark-page-favorite pull-right" data-pid="368" title="Mark as favorite" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star-o"></i></a> </h1> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li><a href="../../../physics.html"><i class="fa fa-home"></i></a><i class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right divider"></i></li><li><a href="../354/atomic-nuclear-and-particles.html">Atomic, nuclear and particles</a><i class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right divider"></i></li><li><span class="gray">Nuclear physics</span></li> <span class="pull-right" style="color: #555" title="Suggested study time: 40 minutes"><i class="fa fa-clock-o"></i> 40'</span> </ol> <article id="main-article"> <p><img alt="" src="../../atomic/2-nuclear-1.jpg" style="float: left; width: 250px; height: 136px;">Nuclear physics is a big topic, embracing all of the following:</p> <ul> <li>The nucleus - protons and neutrons, mass unit and nuclear radius</li> <li>Fundamental forces - including the strong nuclear force</li> <li>Nuclear radiation - types of particle and their properties</li> <li>Nuclear decay - calculating how the number of nuclei change over time </li> <li>Strong nuclear force - binding energy and mass defect</li> <li>Fission and fusion - processes and stability </li> </ul> <hr class="hidden-separator"> <div class="panel panel-turquoise panel-has-colored-body"> <div class="panel-heading"> <div> <p>Key Concepts</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div class="panel panel-turquoise panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>The nucleus</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <h4>Protons and neutrons</h4> <p>All nuclei are made of <em>nucleons</em>, two types of particle: protons and neutrons. They have almost the same mass.</p> <ul> <li>Protons have a positive charge (and is the same as the hydrogen nucleus)</li> <li>Neutrons have no charge</li> </ul> <p>On the Periodic table and in nuclear equations, we use symbols to represent the numbers of protons and neutrons in nuclear reactions:</p> <p><strong>A</strong> is the nucleon number = protons + neutrons (approximately equal to the mass)<br> <strong>Z</strong> is the atomic number = protons (Z<em>e</em> equals the charge in Coulombs)<br> <strong>N</strong> is the neutron number = neutrons (A - Z)</p> <p>A typical atomic symbol on the periodic table (for element 'C'): <img align="middle" alt="C presubscript Z presuperscript A" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mmultiscripts»«mi»C«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mi»Z«/mi»«mi»A«/mi»«/mmultiscripts»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-46.php?formula=1a7054c00bc323ae81d121ab1221244e.png"></p> <p><strong>Elements</strong> are defined by the number of protons. All atoms of a given element therefore have the same Z but can have different N. This dictates the chemical properties of a given element due to the particular nuclear charge.</p> <p><strong>Isotopes</strong> of an element have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties (e.g boiling point).</p> <p>A<strong> neutral atom</strong> has the same number of electrons as protons. If the number is different the atom will have a net charge. A charged particle is called an <strong>ion</strong>.</p> <h4>Unified mass unit (u) </h4> <p>Since the mass of nuclei is based on multiples of protons and neutrons, which themselves have masses in the order of 10<sup>-27</sup> kg, it is sensible to define a unit for the nuclear scale: <i>unified mass unit.</i></p> <p><img class="sibico" src="../../../img/sibico/notes.svg" style="height:1.25em;width: auto;vertical-align:text-bottom" title="Notes (summary/recap)"> The<strong> unified mass unit </strong>is the mass of <span class="math-tex">\(1\over 12\)</span><sup>th</sup> of the mass of an atom of carbon-12:</p> <p>1u = 1.66054 x 10<sup>-27 </sup> kg</p> <p>This gives the following masses for our <em>nucleons</em>:</p> <table border="2" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td style="width: 200px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); text-align: center;">Proton</td> <td style="width: 200px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); text-align: center;">1.00728 u</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="width: 200px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); text-align: center;">Neutron</td> <td style="width: 200px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); text-align: center;">1.00866 u</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <h4>Nuclear radius</h4> <p>Nuclei are too small for us to observe. However, we can get an approximation by finding the closest distance of a approach when a positive alpha particle is fired at a nucleus.</p> <p><img class="sibico" src="../../../img/sibico/hl-red.svg" style="height:1.25em;width: auto;vertical-align:text-bottom" title="HL difficult"> If the alpha particle has charge +2<em>e</em>, mass <em>m </em>and velocity <em>v</em>, the closest it will approach a nucleus of proton number Z is governed by the following equation:</p> <div class="box" style="text-align: center;"><span class="math-tex">\(r={4kZe^2\over mv^2}\)</span></div> <p><img class="sibico" src="../../../img/sibico/sl-green.svg" style="height:1.25em;width: auto;vertical-align:text-bottom" title="SL easy"> The radius of the nucleus is found to be in the order of 10<sup>-15</sup> m (the overall atomic radius is about 10<sup>-10</sup> m).</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> <p> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-turquoise panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border panel-expandable"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Fundamental forces</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <p><img class="sibico" src="../../../img/sibico/sl-blue.svg" style="height:1.25em;width: auto;vertical-align:text-bottom" title="SL"> The physics course to date has taught us about two fundamental forces:</p> <ul> <li>Electromagnetic - acts between charged particles, carried by photons</li> <li>Gravity - acts between masses, carried by gravitons</li> </ul> <p>Nucleons are held together by the <strong>strong nuclear</strong> force. This has a very short range and takes over the repulsive electromagnetic force between charges at short range.</p> <table border="2" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" height="144" width="290"> <tbody> <tr> <td style="width: 50px; background-color: rgb(255, 102, 153);">Force</td> <td style="width: 50px; background-color: rgb(255, 102, 153);">Strength (relative)</td> <td style="width: 50px; background-color: rgb(255, 102, 153);">Range</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="width: 50px;">Nuclear</td> <td style="width: 50px;">1</td> <td style="width: 50px;">10<sup>-15</sup> m</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="width: 50px;">Electromagnetic</td> <td style="width: 50px;">10<sup>-2</sup></td> <td style="width: 50px;">infinite</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="width: 50px;">Gravity</td> <td style="width: 50px;">10<sup>-38</sup></td> <td style="width: 50px;">infinite</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> <p> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-turquoise panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border panel-expandable"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Detecting nuclear radiation</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <p>As well as undergoing fission, large nuclei may also become more stable by releasing small ionising particles. This process is known as <i>nuclear radiation</i> and isotopes that release particles are referred to as <em>radioactive</em>.</p> <p>We can detect nuclear radiation by several methods:</p> <ol> <li>Photographic film - changes colour when radiation is absorbed. This can be used to produce safety badges for workers in nuclear power stations, as it will darken when exposed to radiation.</li> <li>Ionisation chamber - when ionising radiation enters the chamber, the gas present becomes ionised. This produces electrons that can cause a current to flow. A similar principle is used in household smoke detectors, where a radioactive isotope is always present to cause a current - if this is blocked by large smoke particles, an alarm is sounded.</li> </ol> <p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" src="../../../ib/physics/activities/ionchamber.png" style="width: 586px; height: 233px;"></p> <ol start="3"> <li>Geiger-Müller tube and counter - this apparatus contains a high voltage and an inert (unreactive) gas. When ionising radiation enters, the particles of gas become charged and electrons are freed. These are accelerated by the voltage and an electrical pulse is produced.</li> <li>Cloud chamber - contains a supersaturated gas. When ionisation occurs, the ions act as small condensation locations, and tracks are formed through the gas. <div class="box"> <p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" src="../../../ib/physics/activities/cloud1.png" style="width: 189px; height: 136px;"></p> <p style="text-align: center;">A - alpha particle<br> B - beta particle</p> </div> </li> </ol> <p>The types of ionising radiation that can be released by radioactive isotopes are:</p> <ul> <li>Alpha</li> <li>Beta</li> <li>Gamma</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> <p> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-turquoise panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border panel-expandable"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Ionising radiation</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <h4>Alpha (<span class="math-tex">\(\alpha\)</span>)</h4> <p>Alpha particles consist of a helium nucleus (2p<sup>+</sup> 2n<sup>o</sup>). Their relatively large mass and charge mean that they are the most ionising type of radiation. However, this also has the effect that they can only penetrate 2-3 cm of air and they are absorbed fully by a sheet of paper.</p> <p>Alpha decay example: <img align="middle" alt="R presubscript 88 presuperscript 226 a space rightwards arrow R presubscript 86 presuperscript 222 n space plus space H presubscript 2 presuperscript 4 e" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mmultiscripts»«mi»R«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»88«/mn»«mn»226«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mi»a«/mi»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mo»§#8594;«/mo»«mmultiscripts»«mi»R«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»86«/mn»«mn»222«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mi»n«/mi»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mo»+«/mo»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mmultiscripts»«mi»H«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»2«/mn»«mn»4«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mi»e«/mi»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-47.php?formula=a57bd5358e756393edc486f2f2b54890.png"></p> <p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/physics/alpha4.png" style="float: left; width: 400px; height: 238px;">From this spectrum we can deduce that there are two alpha energies: one at 5.5 MeV and the other at about 5.45 MeV.</p> <p>According to the conservation of momentum and energy, this isn't possible unless the nucleus holds onto some energy.</p> <hr class="hidden-separator"> <h4>Beta (<span class="math-tex">\(\beta\)</span>)</h4> <p>Beta particles consist of an electron. Electrons are not normally found in the nucleus, but are released during the process of beta decay, when when a neutron changes into a proton plus an electron. Beta particles are absorbed by a sheet of aluminium foil.</p> <p>Beta decay example:<img align="middle" alt="C presubscript 6 presuperscript 14 space rightwards arrow N presubscript 7 presuperscript 14 plus e to the power of minus plus nu with bar on top" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mmultiscripts»«mi»C«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»6«/mn»«mn»14«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mo»§#8594;«/mo»«mmultiscripts»«mi»N«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»7«/mn»«mn»14«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mo»+«/mo»«msup»«mi»e«/mi»«mo»-«/mo»«/msup»«mo»+«/mo»«mover»«mi»§#957;«/mi»«mo»§#175;«/mo»«/mover»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-41.php?formula=28c909f7a652d2b74ec2292d78f6ffdd.png"></p> <p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/physics/activities/beta1.png" style="width: 344px; height: 262px; float: left;">The <span class="math-tex">\(\bar{\nu}\)</span> symbol represents an anti-electron neutrino. The beta energy spectrum provides evidence of the <em>neutrino</em>, which takes some of the kinetic energy:</p> <ul> <li>Mass - almost nothing</li> <li>Charge - zero</li> <li>Spin - <span class="math-tex">\(1\over 2\)</span></li> </ul> <p><img class="sibico" src="../../../img/sibico/exam-style.svg" style="height:1.25em;width: auto;vertical-align:text-bottom" title="Exam-style question"> Note that both alpha and beta radiation produce new elements. </p> <hr class="hidden-separator"> <h4>Gamma (<span class="math-tex">\(\gamma\)</span>)</h4> <p>Gamma particles are photons of high energy electromagnetic radiation (the same as the gamma we are familiar with from the electromagnetic spectrum). Gamma photons are highly penetrating, only absorbed by several metres of concrete or thick sheets of lead. However, they are the least ionising of these three types of radiation.</p> <p>Gamma radiation is emitted when there are energy changes within the nucleus, for example, following alpha or beta decay. It does not change the composition of the nucleus, but this change in stability can be indicated by an asterisk (*) on the left hand nucleus of the nuclear equation.</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> <p> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-turquoise panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border panel-expandable"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Nuclear decay</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <h4>Decay constant</h4> <p>Radioactive decay is a <em>random</em> process. This means that:</p> <ul> <li>We do not know exactly when the next nucleus will decay</li> <li>We do not know exactly which the next nucleus to decay will be</li> <li>We can predict how many nuclei are likely to decay in a given time period</li> </ul> <p>The rate of decay is proportional to the number of nuclei:</p> <div class="box"> <p style="text-align: center;"><span class="math-tex">\({\mathrm{d} N\over \mathrm{d}t} \propto -N\)</span></p> <p style="text-align: center;"><span class="math-tex">\({\mathrm{d} N\over \mathrm{d}t} = -\lambda N\)</span></p> </div> <p><em>λ</em> is the decay constant, an unchanging value for a given isotope. The decay constant is large if the nucleus is unstable.</p> <p><img class="sibico" src="../../../img/sibico/hl-red.svg" style="height:1.25em;width: auto;vertical-align:text-bottom" title="HL difficult"> Solving the differential equation gives:</p> <div class="box"> <p style="text-align: center;"><span class="math-tex">\(N_t=N_0\mathrm{e}^{-\lambda t}\)</span></p> </div> <ul> <li><em>N<sub>t</sub></em> is the number of nuclei at time t</li> <li><em>N<sub><span style="font-size: 11.25px;">0</span></sub></em> is the original number of nuclei</li> </ul> <p>This function can be plotted in GeoGebra. Observe the changes to the curve when you vary <em>N<sub>0</sub></em> and <em>λ</em>.</p> <p style="text-align: center"><iframe height="429px" scrolling="no" src="https://tube.geogebra.org/material/iframe/id/v4Mwd32F/width/525/height/429/border/888888/rc/false/ai/false/sdz/false/smb/false/stb/false/stbh/true/ld/false/sri/true/at/auto" style="border:0px;" width="525px"></iframe></p> <h4>Activity</h4> <p><em>Activity </em>(<em>A</em>) is defined as the number of particles emitted per second. This is measured in Bequerel (Bq). This is dimensionally equivalent to s<sup>-1</sup>.</p> <p><img class="sibico" src="../../../img/sibico/hl-red.svg" style="height:1.25em;width: auto;vertical-align:text-bottom" title="HL difficult"> Activity and number of nuclei are proportional. Therefore, activity also follows the exponential decay relationship:</p> <div class="box"> <p style="text-align: center;"><span class="math-tex">\(A_t=A_0\mathrm{e}^{-\lambda t}\)</span></p> </div> <h4>Half life</h4> <p><em>Half life</em> (<span class="math-tex">\(t_{1\over 2}\)</span>) is the time for half of the nuclei of an isotope to decay. This is equal to the time for the activity to halve.</p> <p><img class="sibico" src="../../../img/sibico/tok.svg" style="height:1.25em;width: auto;vertical-align:text-bottom" title="Theory if Knowledge"> Half life is a constant for a given isotope, and a mathematical outcome of exponential decay.</p> <p>If <span class="math-tex">\(t=t_{1\over 2}\)</span> then <span class="math-tex">\(N = {N_0 \over 2}\)</span>. Substituting this into the decay equation shows that:</p> <div class="box"> <p style="text-align: center;"><span class="math-tex">\(t_{1\over 2}={\ln2 \over \lambda}\)</span></p> <p style="text-align: center;"><span class="math-tex">\(\lambda={\ln2 \over t_{1\over 2}}\)</span></p> </div> <p>NB: When in doubt in a nuclear decay exam question, start by finding the decay constant. You are likely to be given the half life.</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> <p> </p> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-has-colored-body panel-yellow"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Essentials</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <div class="panel panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border panel-yellow"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Equivalance of mass and energy</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <p>When particles of matter meet the equivalent particles of antimatter, they annihilate. This led Einstein to his famous mass-energy formula.</p> <div class="box"> <p style="text-align: center;"><span class="math-tex">\(E=mc^2\)</span></p> <p>c = the speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 10<sup>8</sup> ms<sup>-1</sup>)</p> </div> <p>The signficance of this equation is that we can calculate the amount of energy required to be converted into the mass of a particle, and vice versa.</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> <p> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border panel-yellow panel-expandable"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Binding energy and mass</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <p>Work is done when a nucleus is pulled apart into its individual parts. Energy is transferred to the nucleons and they gain mass. The mass of the individual nucleons is greater than the mass of the complete nucleus. The difference is called the <em>mass defect</em>.</p> <p>The binding energy is equal to:</p> <div class="box"> <p style="text-align: center;"><span class="math-tex">\(\Delta E=\Delta m c^2\)</span></p> </div> <p><em>Binding energy</em> is the amount of energy required to pull a nucleus apart into separate nucleons. It is equal to the energy released when the separate nucleons combine to form the overall nucleus. </p> <p>Note that in some exam questions you are given the <em>atomic mass </em>(the mass of a neutral atom) rather than the nuclear mass. In this case, you will need to subtract the mass of the electrons (same as proton number).</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> <p> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border panel-yellow panel-expandable"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Nuclear stability</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <p>As more and more nucleons combine in the nucleus, the binding energy increases due to the increased presence of the strong force. To determine whether the nucleus of an isotope is stable, we divide the binding energy by the number of nucleons present.</p> <p>When binding energy per nucleon is plotted against nucleon number, we find that a curve is produced:</p> <ul> <li>Small nuclei are unstable - they would need to gain binding energy to become more stable</li> <li>Isotopes of iron and nickel are the most stable, with binding energies per nucleon of almost 9 MeV</li> <li>Very large nuclei are unstable - they would need to lose nucleons to become more stable</li> </ul> <p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" src="../../../ib/physics/activities/BEnuclgraph.png" style="width: 570px; height: 359px;"></p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> <p> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border panel-yellow panel-expandable"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Fusion and fission</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <h4>Fusion</h4> <p>Nuclear fusion is the combining of two small nuclei to produce one, more massive, nucleus. This increases the binding energy per nucleon, for example:</p> <p style="text-align: center;"><img align="middle" alt="H presubscript 1 presuperscript 2 space plus H presubscript 1 presuperscript 2 space rightwards arrow space H presubscript 2 presuperscript 4 e" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mmultiscripts»«mi»H«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»1«/mn»«mn»2«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mo»+«/mo»«mmultiscripts»«mi»H«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»1«/mn»«mn»2«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mo»§#8594;«/mo»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mmultiscripts»«mi»H«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»2«/mn»«mn»4«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mi»e«/mi»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-48.php?formula=1935677a6ae535a0ca792f98b2608576.png"></p> <p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" src="../../../ib/physics/activities/BEfus1.png" style="width: 569px; height: 321px;"></p> <p>Nuclear fusion reactions release energy as the binding energy required to separate the nucleons in the nucleus increases, calculated using the mass defect. However, since nuclei are positive, they repel each other. This means that they must be thrown together with high speed to get them close enough for the nuclear force to pull them together.</p> <h4>Fission</h4> <p>Nuclear fission is the splitting of one massive nucleus into two, similarly sized, daughter nuclei. This increases the binding energy per nucleon, for example:</p> <p style="text-align: center;"><img align="middle" alt="U presubscript 92 presuperscript 236 rightwards arrow B presubscript 56 presuperscript 142 a plus K presubscript 36 presuperscript 92 r plus N cross times n presubscript 0 presuperscript 1" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mmultiscripts»«mi»U«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»92«/mn»«mn»236«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mo»§#8594;«/mo»«mmultiscripts»«mi»B«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»56«/mn»«mn»142«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mi»a«/mi»«mo»+«/mo»«mmultiscripts»«mi»K«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»36«/mn»«mn»92«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«mi»r«/mi»«mo»+«/mo»«mi»N«/mi»«mo»§#215;«/mo»«mmultiscripts»«mi»n«/mi»«mprescripts/»«mn»0«/mn»«mn»1«/mn»«/mmultiscripts»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-49.php?formula=635fb6924778c2cc7e4eb2c726e9c120.png"></p> <p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" src="../../fuisbe.jpg" style="width: 431px; height: 273px;"></p> <p>Like for nuclear fusion, the energy released can be found from the mass defect. 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