File "covalent-structure.html"
Path: /StudyIB/chemistry/page/882/covalent-structurehtml
File size: 70.56 KB
MIME-type: text/html
Charset: utf-8
<!DOCTYPE html><html lang="EN"><head> <script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-PZBWZ8J');</script> <title>Covalent structure</title><!-- Removed by WebCopy --><!--<base href="/">--><!-- Removed by WebCopy --><meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="IE=Edge"><meta charset="utf-8"><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"><link href="../../../css/bootstrap.flatly.min.css" rel="stylesheet" media="screen"><link rel="stylesheet" href="../../../fonts/awesome/css/font-awesome.min.css"><link href="../../../js/jquery-fancybox/jquery.fancybox.min.css" type="text/css" rel="stylesheet"><link rel="stylesheet" href="../../../css/style.min.css?v=202301301645"><meta name="robots" content="index, follow"><meta name="googlebot" content="noarchive"><meta prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns#" property="og:title" name="og:title" content="StudyIB Chemistry: Covalent structure"> <meta prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns#" property="og:image" content="https://studyib.net/img/studyib-card-default.jpg"> <meta prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns#" property="og:description" name="og:description" content="Topic 4.3 Covalent compounds can be molecules (of various shapes) or giant structures."> <meta prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns#" property="og:url" name="og:url" content="https://studyib.net/chemistry/page/882/covalent-structure"> <meta prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns#" property="og:site_name" name="og:site_name" content="StudyIB - Your IB learning companion"> <meta prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns#" property="og:locale" name="og:locale" content="en"> <meta prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns#" property="og:type" name="og:type" content="website"> <meta name="description" content="Topic 4.3 Covalent compounds can be molecules (of various shapes) or giant structures."> <meta name="image" content="https://studyib.net/img/studyib-card-default.jpg"> <meta name="keywords" content="IB, IBDP, InThinking, International Baccalaureate, Revision, Revision websites, Student Sites, Students, Learning, Guidance, Exam, Questions, Practice problems, Diagnose, Help, Notes"> <meta itemprop="name" content="StudyIB Chemistry: Covalent structure"> <meta itemprop="description" content="Topic 4.3 Covalent compounds can be molecules (of various shapes) or giant structures."> <meta itemprop="image" content="https://studyib.net/img/studyib-card-default.jpg"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"> <meta name="twitter:title" content="StudyIB Chemistry: Covalent structure"> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Topic 4.3 Covalent compounds can be molecules (of various shapes) or giant structures."> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://studyib.net/img/studyib-card-default.jpg"> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@inthinker"><link rel="stylesheet" href="../../../css/snippets.min.css?v=202209111300"><link rel="stylesheet" href="../../../css/article.min.css?v=202211221000"><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../../css/flashcards/flashcards.min.css?v=202211221000"><link rel="stylesheet" href="../../../css/flashcards/magic.min.css"><style type="text/css">.filter-sl-only { display: none; }</style><script src="../../../js/ifvisible.min.js"></script><script>ifvisible.setIdleDuration(300);</script><link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="57x57" href="../../../img/favicon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="114x114" href="../../../img/favicon/apple-touch-icon-114x114.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="72x72" href="../../../img/favicon/apple-touch-icon-72x72.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="144x144" href="../../../img/favicon/apple-touch-icon-144x144.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="60x60" href="../../../img/favicon/apple-touch-icon-60x60.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="120x120" href="../../../img/favicon/apple-touch-icon-120x120.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="76x76" href="../../../img/favicon/apple-touch-icon-76x76.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="152x152" href="../../../img/favicon/apple-touch-icon-152x152.png"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="../../../img/favicon/favicon-196x196.png" sizes="196x196"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="../../../img/favicon/favicon-96x96.png" sizes="96x96"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="../../../img/favicon/favicon-32x32.png" sizes="32x32"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="../../../img/favicon/favicon-16x16.png" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="../../../img/favicon/favicon-128.png" sizes="128x128"> <meta name="application-name" content="StudyIB: Your IB Learning Companion"> <meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#A5BED5"> <meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="/img/favicon/mstile-144x144.png"> <meta name="msapplication-square70x70logo" content="/img/favicon/mstile-70x70.png"> <meta name="msapplication-square150x150logo" content="/img/favicon/mstile-150x150.png"> <meta name="msapplication-wide310x150logo" content="/img/favicon/mstile-310x150.png"> <meta name="msapplication-square310x310logo" content="/img/favicon/mstile-310x310.png"><script>var stdHash = "6da675cbcb3d25f050b05557349abc79", stdTicket = "082b9c9c4ae3624d";</script><script src="../../../js/user/local-stats.min.js?v=202205311700"></script><link href="../../../css/subjects-frontpage.min.css?v=202302031000" rel="stylesheet"></head><body class="public chemistry"> <noscript><iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-PZBWZ8J" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <div id="top-header"> <div class="wmap general hidden-sm hidden-xs subjects"> <div class="layout-wrapper"> <div class="container-fluid"> <a href=""> <img class="header-thinker" src="../../../img/header-thinker.svg"> </a> <h1> <a href="../../../chemistry.html"> IBDP Chemistry </a> <a href="https://inthinking.net" title="inthinking.net" class="inthinking-logo pull-right"> <img src="../../../img/header-logo.svg" style="height: 80px; width: auto;"> </a> </h1> <p class="slogan">InThinking Revision Sites for students</p> <p class="author">Website by <strong>Paul Lloyd</strong></p> <p class="updated">Updated 1 February 2023</p> </div> </div> </div> <nav id="public-topnav" class="navbar navbar-default"> <div class="container-fluid"> <div class="navbar-header"> <a class="navbar-brand hidden-md hidden-lg" href="../../../index.htm"> <img class="header-xs-thinker" src="../../../img/header-thinker.svg"> </a> <button type="button" class="collapsed navbar-toggle" data-toggle="collapse" data-target="#subject-navbar-collapse" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="sr-only">Toggle navigation</span> <i class="fa fa-fw fa-2x fa-user"></i> </button> <div class="brand hidden-lg hidden-md hidden-sm"> <a class="brand-xs" href="../../../chemistry.html"> <strong class="title" style="white-space: nowrap;font-size: 18px;">Chemistry</strong> </a> </div> </div> <div class="collapse navbar-collapse" id="subject-navbar-collapse"> <ul class="nav navbar-bar navbar-userbox hidden-md hidden-lg"><li class="dropdown"><a href="#" class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-lg fa-user-circle" style="margin-right: 5px;"></i><span style="font-size: 16px;"></span></a><ul class="dropdown-menu"><li class="dropdown-submenu"><a class="dropdown-toggle" href="#" data-toggle="dropdown"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-globe"></i> Subjects</a><ul class="dropdown-menu"><li></li><li class=""><a href="../../../biology.html">DP Biology</a></li><li class="active"><a href="../../../chemistry.html"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i> DP Chemistry</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../englishalanglit.html">DP English A: Language & Literature</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../mathsanalysis.html">DP Maths: Analysis & Approaches</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../mathsapplications.html">DP Maths: Applications & Interpretations SL</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../physics.html">DP Physics</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../spanishb.html">DP Spanish B</a></li></ul></li><li class="menu-item"><a href="../../../user.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-dashboard"></i> Dashboard</a></li><li class="menu-item"><a href="../../../user/profile.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-cog"></i> My profile</a></li><li class="menu-item"><a href="../../../user/messages.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-envelope"></i> Messages</a></li><li class="menu-item hidden-md hidden-lg mt-xs-3"><a href="../../../index.htm?logout=1" class="btn btn-primary btn-xs-block"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-lg fa-power-off text-danger"></i>Log out</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul class="nav navbar-bar"><li class=""><a class="home" href="../../../chemistry.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-home"></i> Home</a></li><li class=""><a class="topics" href="#"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-th-large"></i> Topics</a></li><li class=""><a class="favorites" href="../../../chemistry.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-star"></i> My favorites</a></li><li class=""><a class="" href="../../flashcards.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-bolt"></i> Flashcards</a></li><li class=""><a class="qbank" href="../../test-your-knowledge.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-question"></i> Question bank</a></li><li class=""><a class="networks" href="../../networks.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-graduation-cap"></i> Virtual tutor</a></li><li class=""><a class="" href="../../blogs.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-paperclip"></i> Blog</a></li><li class=""><a class="sitemap" href="../../sitemap.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-sitemap"></i> Sitemap</a></li><li class=""><a class="activity" href="../../../chemistry.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-calendar-check-o"></i> My activity</a></li></ul> <ul class="nav navbar-bar navbar-right"> <li> <form class="navbar-form hidden-md hidden-lg" role="search" method="get" action="chemistry/search"> <div class="input-group"> <input class="form-control nav-search" name="glob" type="search" placeholder="Search..."> <span class="input-group-btn"> <button type="submit" class="btn bg-blue"> <i class="fa fa-search"> </i> </button> </span> </div> </form> <a href="#" class="toggle-menu-search hidden-sm hidden-xs" data-toggle="dropdown"> <i class="fa fa-lg fa-search"></i> </a> </li></ul> </div> </div></nav><nav id="nav-menu-search" class="shadow-bottom hidden-sm hidden-xs" style="display: none;"> <div class="container-fluid"> <form class="" role="search" method="get" action="chemistry/search"> <input class="form-control nav-search" name="glob" type="search" placeholder="Search Chemistry..."> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" type="submit"> Search </button> </form> </div></nav><div class="modal fade" tabindex="-1" role="dialog" id="modal-mini-login"> <div class="modal-dialog" role="document"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-body"> <button aria-hidden="true" data-dismiss="modal" class="close hidden-xs login-button-close" type="button">×</button> <form method="post"> <div class="form-group"> <input name="user-email" class="form-control" type="text" placeholder="Email"> </div> <div class="form-group"> <input name="user-password" class="form-control" type="password" placeholder="Password"> <input name="user-fp" class="fp" value="d8c893da5db7501669ffeeac46273ba6" type="hidden"> </div> <div class="form-group"> <a href="../../../reset-password.html" class="reset-password" style="font-weight: normal;"> Forgot your password? </a> </div> <div class="form-group"> <button type="submit" name="submit-login" value="1" class="btn btn-primary btn-block text-center"> <i class="fa fa-user fa-fw"></i> Log in </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div></div></div><div class="modal fade" id="show-topics" tabindex="-1" role="dialog"><div id="dialog-topics" class="modal-dialog modal-dialog-topics"><div class="modal-content"><div class="modal-body modal-body-topics"><div id="new-frontpage-toplevels-topics" class="frontpage-box"><div class="row"><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../3004/free-access-weekend.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Free Access Weekend!</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('../../images/general-images/free.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../2075/paper-1-exam-questions.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Paper 1 Exam Questions</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('../../images/test-images/exams.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../2124/paper-2-exam-questions.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Paper 2 Exam Questions</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('../../images/general-images/paper-2.2.png'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../1138/start-here.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Start Here</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('../../images/general-images/start-here.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../343/stoichiometry.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Stoichiometry</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('../../images/stoichiometry/scales-1333455_640.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../355/atomic-structure.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Atomic Structure</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('../../images/atomic-structure/the-atom.png'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../356/periodicity.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Periodicity</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('/media/chemistry/images/periodicity/p-block.png'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../357/bonding-and-structure.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Bonding & Structure</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('/media/chemistry/images/chemical-bonding-and-structure/crystallize-482971_640.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../358/energetics.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Energetics</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('/media/chemistry/images/energetics-thermochemistry/fire-1030751_640.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../359/kinetics.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Kinetics</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('/media/chemistry/images/chemical-kinetics/time-731110_640.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../360/equilibrium.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Equilibrium</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('/media/chemistry/images/equilibrium/soda-466542_640.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../361/acids-and-bases.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Acids & Bases</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('../../images/acids-and-bases/ui-paper-2.png'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../362/redox-processes.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Redox Processes</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('/media/chemistry/images/redox-processes/oxide-1241222_640.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../342/organic-chemistry.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Organic Chemistry</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('../../images/organic-chemistry/d-idose_molekulbaukasten_9173.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div><div class="col-md-4 col-sm-4"><div class="item"><a href="../363/measurement.html"><div class="header" style="height: 35px;"><h3 class="title special" style="margin-top: 0;">Measurement</h3></div><div class="body"><div class="cropper" style="background-image: url('/media/chemistry/images/measurement-and-data/tablet-600649_640.jpg'); height: 10vw;"></div></div></a></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="container-fluid shadow-ith"><div class="row frontpage"> <div class="col-md-3" id="left-column"> <p class="visible-xs-block"></p><div class="dropdown user-menu hidden-xs" style="margin-bottom: 20px;"> <button type="button" class="btn btn-default dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" style="border-radius: 0; padding: 6px 18px;"> <i class="fa fa-fw fa-user-circle"></i> <small><i class="fa fa-caret-down"></i></small> </button> <ul class="dropdown-menu"> <li class="dropdown-submenu"><a href="#"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-globe"></i> Subjects</a><ul id="user-subjects-menu" class="dropdown-menu"><li></li><li class=""><a href="../../../biology.html">DP Biology</a></li><li class="active"><a href="../../../chemistry.html"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i> DP Chemistry</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../englishalanglit.html">DP English A: Language & Literature</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../mathsanalysis.html">DP Maths: Analysis & Approaches</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../mathsapplications.html">DP Maths: Applications & Interpretations SL</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../physics.html">DP Physics</a></li><li class=""><a href="../../../spanishb.html">DP Spanish B</a></li></ul></li><li class="divider"></li><li><a href="../../../user.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-dashboard"></i> Dashboard</a></li><li><a href="../../../user/profile.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-cog"></i> My profile</a></li><li><a href="../../../user/messages.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-envelope"></i> Messages</a></li> <li class="divider"></li> <li> <a href="../../../index.htm?logout=1"> <i class="fa fa-fw fa-power-off"></i> Log out </a> </li> </ul></div> <div id="side-nav"><h4 class="side-nav-title dropdown"><a href="../357/bonding-and-structure.html" class="dropdown-toggle toplevel-dropdown" data-toggle="dropdown"><i class="fa fa-ellipsis-v"></i></a> <a href="../357/bonding-and-structure.html">Bonding and Structure</a><ul class="dropdown-menu"><li><a href="../../../chemistry.html" style="padding-left: 5px; border-bottom: solid 1px #ddd"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-home"></i> Home</a></li><li><a href="../3004/free-access-weekend.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Free Access Weekend!</a></li><li><a href="../2075/paper-1-exam-questions.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Paper 1 Exam Questions</a></li><li><a href="../2124/paper-2-exam-questions.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Paper 2 Exam Questions</a></li><li><a href="../1138/start-here.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Start Here</a></li><li><a href="../343/stoichiometry.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Stoichiometry</a></li><li><a href="../355/atomic-structure.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Atomic Structure</a></li><li><a href="../356/periodicity.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Periodicity</a></li><li><a href="../358/energetics.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Energetics</a></li><li><a href="../359/kinetics.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Kinetics</a></li><li><a href="../360/equilibrium.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Equilibrium</a></li><li><a href="../361/acids-and-bases.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Acids and Bases</a></li><li><a href="../362/redox-processes.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Redox Processes</a></li><li><a href="../342/organic-chemistry.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Organic Chemistry</a></li><li><a href="../363/measurement.html"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-caret-right"></i> Measurement</a></li></ul><div class="pull-right"><a class="sidenav-expand" title="Expand all" href="#"><i class="fa fa-plus-circle"></i></a> <a class="sidenav-compress" title="Compress all" href="#"><i class="fa fa-minus-circle"></i></a></div></h4><ul class="side-nav level-0"><li class=""><label style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="fa fa-fw"></i><a href="../880/ionic-bonding-and-structure.html">Ionic bonding and structure</a></label></li><li class=""><label style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="fa fa-fw"></i><a href="../881/covalent-bonding.html">Covalent bonding</a></label></li><li class="expanded parent selected"><label style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="fa fa-fw"></i><a href="covalent-structure.html">Covalent structure</a></label></li><li class=""><label style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="fa fa-fw"></i><a href="../883/intermolecular-forces.html">Intermolecular forces</a></label></li><li class=""><label style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="fa fa-fw"></i><a href="../884/metallic-bonding.html">Metallic bonding</a></label></li><li class=""><label style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="fa fa-fw"></i><a href="../885/further-covalent-bonding-and-structure.html">Further covalent bonding and structure</a></label></li><li class=""><label style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="fa fa-fw"></i><a href="../886/hybridization.html">Hybridization</a></label></li></ul></div> <button id="show-periodic-table" class="btn btn-default btn-block" style="margin-bottom: 10px"><i class="fa fa-table"></i> Periodic table</button> <div class="hidden-xs hidden-sm"> <button class="btn btn-default btn-block text-xs-center" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#modal-feedback" style="margin-bottom: 10px"><i class="fa fa-send"></i> Feedback</button> </div> </div> <div class="col-md-9" id="main-column"> <h1 class="page_title"> Covalent structure <a href="#" class="mark-page-favorite pull-right" data-pid="882" title="Mark as favorite" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star-o"></i></a> </h1> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li><a href="../../../chemistry.html"><i class="fa fa-home"></i></a><i class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right divider"></i></li><li><a href="../357/bonding-and-structure.html">Bonding and Structure</a><i class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right divider"></i></li><li><span class="gray">Covalent structure</span></li> <span class="pull-right" style="color: #555" title="Suggested study time: 60 minutes"><i class="fa fa-clock-o"></i> 60'</span> </ol> <article id="main-article"> <p> <img alt="" src="../../images/test-images/screenshot-2020-07-23-at-15.01.32-1.png" style="width: 160px; height: 150px; float: left;">Our model of covalent bonding and structure is based on the Bohr model of the atom and represented with Lewis diagrams. Lewis diagrams can be drawn with dots and crosses or with lines that represent a pair of outer-shell (valence) electrons.. It is important to become familiar with both notations; dots and/or crosses, or lines, so these notations are used interchangeably throughout this website. Always check that you have the correct number of electrons in total after you've drawn a covalent molecule; it is easy to slip up here!</p> <hr class="hidden-separator"> <div class="panel panel-has-colored-body panel-turquoise"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Key concepts</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <p>Ensure you are confident using the terms below and learn the asterisked* definitions</p> <p><strong>a polar bond*</strong>, <strong>a dative (coordinate) bond*</strong>, <strong>VSEPR theory*</strong>, a polar molecule, the octet rule, expanded octet, incomplete octet, valency, resonance structures, delocalised electrons, allotropes, lattice (or giant) structure.</p> <div class="tib-flashcard"><a class="show-flashcards btn btn-success btn-xs-block btn-block " data-levels="1" data-mode="Normal" data-topics="606" data-subject-id="7" data-n-flashcards="12" style="text-align:center">Show flashcards</a></div><hr> <div class="panel panel-has-colored-body panel-has-border panel-turquoise"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Understanding Resonance</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div>Understanding that resonance is an adjustment to our Lewis (dot-cross) diagram model of bonding.</div> <div class="video-embed vimeo"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" webkitallowfullscreen="" height="420" width="100%" src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/407161843"></iframe></div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-yellow panel-has-colored-body"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Essentials</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <p> The revision cards contain all of the essential content:</p> <div id="carousel-181" class="dynamic-gallery carousel slide" data-id="181"><div class="carousel-inner" role="listbox"><div class="item active"><a class="fancy" href="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-124904.png" data-fancybox="gallery-181" title="" data-caption=""><img alt="" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-124904.png"></a></div><div class="item "><a class="fancy" href="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-124922.png" data-fancybox="gallery-181" title="" data-caption=""><img alt="" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-124922.png"></a></div><div class="item "><a class="fancy" href="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-07-30-at-104839.png" data-fancybox="gallery-181" title="" data-caption=""><img alt="" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-07-30-at-104839.png"></a></div><div class="item "><a class="fancy" href="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125000.png" data-fancybox="gallery-181" title="" data-caption=""><img alt="" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125000.png"></a></div><div class="item "><a class="fancy" href="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125043.png" data-fancybox="gallery-181" title="" data-caption=""><img alt="" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125043.png"></a></div><div class="item "><a class="fancy" href="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125100.png" data-fancybox="gallery-181" title="" data-caption=""><img alt="" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125100.png"></a></div><div class="item "><a class="fancy" href="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125841.png" data-fancybox="gallery-181" title="" data-caption=""><img alt="" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125841.png"></a></div><div class="item "><a class="fancy" href="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125134.png" data-fancybox="gallery-181" title="" data-caption=""><img alt="" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125134.png"></a></div></div><a class="left carousel-control" href="#carousel-181" role="button" data-slide="prev"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-left"></i></a><a class="right carousel-control" href="#carousel-181" role="button" data-slide="next"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i></a></div><ol class="std-carousel-indicators"><li data-index="0"><img title="Click to view" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-124904-thumb128.jpg"><li><li data-index="1"><img title="Click to view" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-124922-thumb128.jpg"><li><li data-index="2"><img title="Click to view" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-07-30-at-104839-thumb128.jpg"><li><li data-index="3"><img title="Click to view" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125000-thumb128.jpg"><li><li data-index="4"><img title="Click to view" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125043-thumb128.jpg"><li><li data-index="5"><img title="Click to view" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125100-thumb128.jpg"><li><li data-index="6"><img title="Click to view" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125841-thumb128.jpg"><li><li data-index="7"><img title="Click to view" src="../../../std-galleries/7-181/screenshot-2020-04-14-at-125134-thumb128.jpg"><li></li></ol> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-has-colored-body panel-green"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Test yourself</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <div class="panel-body"> <div> <div class="tib-quiz" data-stats="7-136-882"><div class="label label-default q-number">1</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>Which of the following are included in the rules of VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) theory?</p><p><strong>1: </strong> The repulsion exhibited by a lone pair of electrons on a bonding pair is <strong>greater</strong> <strong>than</strong> the repulsion exhibited by a bonding pair on another bonding pair.</p><p><strong>2:</strong> Electron domains will repel as far apart as possible (in 3D space) around a central atom.</p><p><strong>3:</strong> The repulsion exhibited by a lone pair of electrons on another lone pair is<strong> less than </strong>the repulsion exhibited by a bonding pair on another bonding pair.</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>1 and 2 only</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>2 only</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>2 and 3 only</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>1, 2 and 3</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation">1 and 2 are included in the VSEPR rules. 3 is incorrect as it is written; to be correct the words in bold would need to read <strong>'greater than'</strong>. Remember: Lone pair-lone pair repulsion > lone pair- bonding pair repulsion > bonding pair-bonding pair repulsion. The lone pairs are more 'diffuse' and 'take up more space' around the central atom.</div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">2</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>Draw a Lewis (dot-cross) diagram for silane (SiH<sub>4</sub>). What is the shape around the central silicon atom and what are the likely bond angles?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Tetrahedral; 90°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Trigonal pyramidal; 107°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Square planar; 90°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>Tetrahedral; 109.5°</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>Silane is the same shape as methane (CH<sub>4</sub>); <strong>tetrahedral</strong>, with bond angles of <strong>109.5°</strong>. The Lewis diagram and shape are drawn below. Remember that molecules are three-dimensional, even though we draw the Lewis diagrams in two dimensions on the page.</p><p><img alt="" height="251" src="../../images/chemical-bonding-and-structure/silane.png" width="570"></p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">3</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>Draw a Lewis (dot-cross) diagram for phosphine (PH<sub>3</sub>). What is the shape around the central phosphorus atom and what are the likely bond angles?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Trigonal planar; 120°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>Trigonal pyramidal; 107°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Trigonal planar; 90°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Tetrahedral; 109.5°</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>Phosphine is the same shape as ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>); <strong>trigonal pyramidal</strong>, with bond angles that might be estimated at approx <strong>107°</strong> (although they are lower). The <strong>electron domains </strong>form a tetrahedral shape, but one bond is missing (it is a lone pair).</p><p>The Lewis diagram and shape are drawn below. Remember that molecules are three-dimensional, even though we draw the Lewis diagrams in two dimensions on the page.</p><p><img alt="" height="252" src="../../images/chemical-bonding-and-structure/phosphine.png" width="642"></p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">4</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>Draw a Lewis (dot-cross) diagram for hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S). What is the shape around the central sulfur atom and what are the likely bond angles?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Linear; 180°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>Bent; 104.5°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Tetrahedral; 109.5°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Linear; 90°</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>Hydrogen sulfide is the same shape as water (H<sub>2</sub>O); <strong>bent</strong>, with bond angles that might be estimated as approx <strong>104.5°</strong> (although they are lower). The<strong> electron domains </strong>form a tetrahedral shape, but two bonds are missing (they are lone pairs).</p><p>The Lewis diagram and shape are drawn below. Remember that molecules are three-dimensional, even though we draw the Lewis diagrams in two dimensions on the page.</p><p><img alt="" height="244" src="../../images/chemical-bonding-and-structure/hydrogen-sulfide.png" width="644"></p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">5</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>How many electrons in total in the valence (outer) electron shells of boron and beryllium respectively in BCl<sub>3</sub> and BeCl<sub>2</sub>?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Boron 8; beryllium 8</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Boron 2; beryllium 3</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Boron 6; beryllium 8</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>Boron 6; beryllium 4</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>Boron and beryllium can form stable molecules with incomplete valence shells. Boron in BCl<sub>3</sub> forms only three single bonds with each chlorine; a total of 6 electrons in the valence shell. Beryllium in BeCl<sub>2</sub> forms only two single bonds with each chlorine; a total of 4 electrons in the valence shell.</p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">6</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>What are the shapes and bond angles around the central boron and beryllium atoms in BCl<sub>3</sub> and BeCl<sub>2</sub> respectively?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Trigonal pyramidal, 107°; bent, 104.5°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>Trigonal planar, 120°; linear, 180°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Trigonal pyramidal, 107°; linear, 180°</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Trigonal planar, 120°; bent, 104.5°</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>Boron and beryllium can form stable molecules with incomplete valence shells. Boron in BCl<sub>3</sub> forms only three single bonds with each chlorine; a total of 6 electrons in the valence shell. Beryllium in BeCl<sub>2</sub> forms only two single bonds with each chlorine; a total of 4 electrons in the valence shell.</p><p>Thus in BCl<sub>3</sub> and BeCl<sub>2</sub> respectively the shapes and bond angles are trigonal planar, 120° and linear, 180°.</p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">7</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>Look at the table below:</p><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><p>Chemical</p></td><td style="text-align: center;">Melting/boiling point</td><td style="text-align: center;"><p>Electrical conductivity</p><p>(solid)</p></td><td style="text-align: center;"><p>Electrical conductivity</p><p>(molten)</p></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">W</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">X</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">Y</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">Z</td><td style="text-align: center;">low</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td></tr></tbody></table><p>Which of the four chemicals is likely to be a chemical with a giant covalent structure, like silicon dioxide?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Z</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>X</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>Y</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>W</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>Giant covalent structures are likely to have high melting and boiling points; it takes a lot of energy to break the network of strong covalent bonds. They are also unlikely to conduct electricity in any state (graphite is an exception) as they do not usually have mobile electrons or mobile ions to carry charge.</p><p>So Y is the correct answer.</p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">8</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>Look at the table below:</p><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><p>Chemical</p></td><td style="text-align: center;">Melting/boiling point</td><td style="text-align: center;"><p>Electrical conductivity</p><p>(solid)</p></td><td style="text-align: center;"><p>Electrical conductivity</p><p>(molten)</p></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">W</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">X</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">Y</td><td style="text-align: center;">high</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">Z</td><td style="text-align: center;">low</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td><td style="text-align: center;">nil</td></tr></tbody></table><p>Which of the four chemicals is likely to be a chemical with a simple (molecular) covalent structure?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>W</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>X</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>Z</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Y</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>Simple covalent structures are likely to have low melting and boiling points; it does not take much energy to break the relatively weak intermolecular forces between molecules. They are also unlikely to conduct electricity in any state as they do not usually have mobile electrons or mobile ions to carry charge.</p><p>So Z is the correct answer.</p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">9</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>Allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene (C<sub>60</sub>). How many bonds does each carbon form connecting to another carbon atom in each of these allotropes respectively?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>Diamond, 4 : Graphite, 3 : Buckminsterfullerene, 3</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Diamond, 3 : Graphite, 3 : Buckminsterfullerene, 3</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Diamond, 4 : Graphite, 3 : Buckminsterfullerene, 4</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>Diamond, 4 : Graphite, 4 : Buckminsterfullerene, 4</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>In <strong>diamond </strong>the carbon atoms are bonded in a tetrahedral arrangement to <strong>4 </strong>other carbon atoms, in a giant covalent structure.</p><p>In <strong>graphite </strong>the carbon atoms are bonded in a trigonal planar arrangement to <strong>3 </strong>other carbon atoms, in a giant covalent structure, with carbon hexagon rings, in layers. (The fourth electron from every carbon atom is delocalised between the layers and holds the layers together.)</p><p>In <strong>buckminsterfullerene </strong>the carbon atoms are bonded in a trigonal planar arrangement to <strong>3 </strong>other carbon atoms, forming the surface of the C<sub>60</sub> 'carbon football' molecule with interlinking carbon hexagons (20) and pentagons (12).</p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">10</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>Which is the best description of why graphite in the solid state can conduct electricity and why graphite is a good solid state lubricant respectively?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>The delocalised electrons are free to move between layers: The atoms in the lattice and free to move.</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>The ions are free to move between layers: The layers of atoms in the lattice can slide over one-another.</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>The ions are free to move between layers: The atoms in the lattice are free to move. </span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>The delocalised electrons are free to move between layers: The layers of atoms in the lattice can slide over one-another.</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>In graphite the carbon atoms are bonded in a trigonal planar arrangement to 3<strong> </strong>other carbon atoms, in a giant covalent structure, with carbon hexagon rings, in layers. The fourth electron from every carbon atom is delocalised between the layers and holds the layers together (weakly).</p><p>Graphite conducts electricity in the solid state because the delocalised electrons between layers are able to move and carry charge.</p><p>Graphite is a good solid state lubricant because the layers of atoms are able to slide over one-another; the London dispersion forces between the layers are weak and easily broken. Individual atoms cannot move independently, but the layers can easily slide off the structure (think of a pencil marking a piece of paper).</p><p>The correct answer is therefore: 'The delocalised electrons are free to move between layers: The layers of atoms in the lattice can slide over one-another'.</p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">11</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>Which of the following molecules is likely to be polar?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub></span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>CH<sub>3</sub>Cl</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>CCl<sub>4</sub></span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>CH<sub>4</sub></span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>To be polar, a molecule must have polar bonds (differences in electronegativity) within it and must have asymmetric geometry (molecules will then have an overall dipole moment). If the dipoles of polar bonds cancel out because the molecule is symmetrical, then the molecule will have no overall dipole.</p><p>The C–H bonds are not considered to be significantly polar, and in addition, CH<sub>4</sub> and C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub> both have symmetrical geometry.</p><p>The C<sup>δ+</sup>–Cl<sup>δ–</sup> bond is polar. In CCl<sub>4</sub> the dipoles cancel as the molecule is symmetrical, but in CH<sub>3</sub>Cl the dipoles will not cancel out and CH<sub>3</sub>Cl is therefore polar.</p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">12</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>When the bonding in a chemical species cannot be adequately represented by one single Lewis diagram, resonance structures may be used. Which of the following chemical species exhibit resonance?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub></span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2–</sup></span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>OH<sup>–</sup></span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>CO<sub>2</sub></span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>Lewis (dot-cross) diagrams for C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>, OH<sup>–</sup> and CO<sub>2</sub> may all be drawn that accurately represent these species in terms of bond length and shape etc. The carbonate ion CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2–</sup> is said to exhibit resonance, because the shape of the compound ion with three C–O bonds of<strong> equal length </strong>cannot be represented by a conventional Lewis diagram. The resonance structures are shown below (showing bonds only for clarity; lone pairs are not shown):</p><p><img alt="" height="191" src="../../images/chemical-bonding-and-structure/carbonate.png" width="667"></p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="label label-default q-number">13</div><div class="exercise shadow-bottom"><div class="q-question"><p>When the bonding in a chemical species cannot be adequately represented by one single Lewis diagram, resonance structures may be used. When the resonance structures for a molecule of ozone, O<sub>3</sub>, are drawn, how many bonds do each of the three oxygen atoms form?</p></div><div class="q-answer"><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>2: 3: 2</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>2: 2: 2</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input type="radio"> <span>3: 1: 3</span></label> </p><p><label class="radio"> <input class="c" type="radio"> <span>2: 3: 1</span></label> </p></div><div class="q-explanation"><p>The ozone molecule is said to exhibit resonance, because the shape of the molecule with two O–O bonds of<strong> equal length </strong>cannot be represented by a conventional Lewis diagram. The resonance structures are shown below (showing bonds only for clarity; lone pairs are not shown). The oxygen atoms form 2: 3: 1 bonds (or vica versa) respectively. The arrow represents a coordinate (dative) bond.</p><p><img alt="" height="184" src="../../images/chemical-bonding-and-structure/ozone.png" width="594"></p></div><div class="actions"><span class="score" data-score="0"></span><button class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-xs-block text-xs-center check"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><div class="totals"><span class="score"></span><button class="btn btn-success btn-block text-center check-total"><i class="fa fa-check-square-o"></i> Check</button></div></div><hr> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-has-colored-body panel-default"> <div class="panel-heading"><a class="expander" href="#"><span class="fa fa-plus"></span></a> <div> <p>Exam-style questions</p> </div> </div> <div class="panel-body"> <h4>Paper 1</h4> <h5>Core (SL&HL): <a href="../2161/bonding-and-structure-core-sl-and-hl-paper-1-questions.html" title="Bonding and Structure core (SL and HL) paper 1 questions">Bonding and Structure core (SL and HL) paper 1 questions</a></h5> <h5>AHL (HL only): <a href="../2703/bonding-and-structure-ahl-hl-only-paper-1-questions.html" title=" Bonding and Structure AHL (HL only) paper 1 questions">Bonding and Structure AHL (HL only) paper 1 questions</a></h5> <h4>Paper 2</h4> <h5>Core (SL&HL): <a href="../2704/bonding-structure-core-sl-hl-paper-2-questions.html" title="Bonding & Structure core (SL & HL) paper 2 questions">Bonding & Structure core (SL & HL) paper 2 questions</a></h5> <h5>AHL (HL only): <a href="../2705/bonding-structure-ahl-hl-only-paper-2-questions.html" title="Bonding & Structure AHL (HL only) paper 2 questions">Bonding & Structure AHL (HL only) paper 2 questions</a></h5> </div> <div class="panel-footer"> <div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="page-container panel-self-assessment" data-id="882"> <div class="panel-heading">MY PROGRESS</div> <div class="panel-body understanding-rate"> <div class="msg"></div> <label class="label-lg">Self-assessment</label><p>How much of <strong>Covalent structure</strong> have you understood?</p><div class="slider-container text-center"><div id="self-assessment-slider" class="sib-slider self-assessment " data-value="1" data-percentage=""></div></div> <label class="label-lg">My notes</label> <textarea name="page-notes" class="form-control" rows="3" placeholder="Write your notes here..."></textarea> </div> <div class="panel-footer text-xs-center"> <span id="last-edited" class="mb-xs-3"> </span> <div class="actions mt-xs-3"> <button id="save-my-progress" type="button" class="btn btn-sm btn-primary text-center btn-xs-block"> <i class="fa fa-fw fa-floppy-o"></i> Save </button> </div> </div></div> <div id="modal-feedback" class="modal fade" tabindex="-1" role="dialog"> <div class="modal-dialog" role="document"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-header"> <h4 class="modal-title">Feedback</h4> <button type="button" class="close hidden-xs hidden-sm" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close"> <span aria-hidden="true">×</span> </button> </div> <div class="modal-body"> <div class="errors"></div> <p><strong>Which of the following best describes your feedback?</strong></p> <form method="post" style="overflow: hidden"> <div class="form-group"> <div class="radio"><label style="color: #121212;"><input type="radio" name="feedback-type" value="Recommendation"> Recommend</label></div><div class="radio"><label style="color: #121212;"><input type="radio" name="feedback-type" value="Problem"> Report a problem</label></div><div class="radio"><label style="color: #121212;"><input type="radio" name="feedback-type" value="Improvement"> Suggest an improvement</label></div><div class="radio"><label style="color: #121212;"><input type="radio" name="feedback-type" value="Other"> Other</label></div> </div> <hr> <div class="row"> <div class="col-md-6"> <div class="form-group"> <label for="feedback-name">Name</label> <input type="text" class="form-control" name="feedback-name" placeholder="Name" value=" "> </div> </div> <div class="col-md-6"> <div class="form-group"> <label for="feedback-email">Email address</label> <input type="email" class="form-control" name="feedback-email" placeholder="Email" value="@airmail.cc"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="form-group"> <label for="feedback-comments">Comments</label> <textarea class="form-control" name="feedback-comments" style="resize: vertical;"></textarea> </div> <input type="hidden" name="feedback-ticket" value="082b9c9c4ae3624d"> <input type="hidden" name="feedback-url" value="https://studyib.net/chemistry/page/882/covalent-structure"> <input type="hidden" name="feedback-subject" value="7"> <input type="hidden" name="feedback-subject-name" value="Chemistry"> <div class="pull-left"> </div> </form> </div> <div class="modal-footer"> <button type="button" class="btn btn-primary btn-xs-block feedback-submit mb-xs-3 pull-right"> <i class="fa fa-send"></i> Send </button> <button type="button" class="btn btn-default btn-xs-block m-xs-0 pull-left" data-dismiss="modal"> Close </button> </div> </div> </div></div> <style type="text/css" media="screen">/* Important part */
.modal-dialog{ overflow-y: initial !important
}
.modal-body{ overflow-x: auto; overflow-y: auto;
}</style><div id="modal-periodic-table" class="modal fade" tabindex="-1" role="dialog"> <div class="modal-dialog modal-lg" role="document" style="width: 90vw;"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-header"> <h4 class="modal-title">Periodic table</h4> <button type="button" class="close" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close"> <span aria-hidden="true">×</span> </button> </div> <div class="modal-body"> <img src="../../../img/periodic-table/periodic-table-2020.png" style="max-width: 1400px; height: auto"> </div> <div class="modal-footer"> <button type="button" class="btn btn-default btn-xs-block m-xs-0 pull-right" data-dismiss="modal" aria-hidden="true"> Close </button> </div> </div> </div></div> <div id="fc-viewer" class="modal fade modal-flashcard" tabindex="-1" role="dialog"><div class="modal-dialog" role="document"><div class="modal-content"><div class="modal-header" style="background-color: #fafafa;"><div class="row" style="width: 100%;"><div class="col-md-12 tags-heading"><div style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between; align-items: center;"><p id="fc-viewer-info" style="width: 80%;"></p><button type="button" class="close" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close"><span aria-hidden="true">×</span></button></div></div></div></div><div id="flashcard-body" class="modal-body"><div class="row" style="margin: 0;"><div class="col-md-8 fc-viewer-main"><div class="fc-viewer-inner"><div id="fc-viewer-main-front"><div class="fc-viewer-content"></div><span class="mark-favorite" style="position: absolute; top: 10px; right: 10px; font-size: 22px;"><i class="fa fa-lg fa-star-o"></i></span><span id="issue-report" class="issue-report hidden-xs hidden-sm" title="Report a problem"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-lg fa-exclamation-circle" style="font-size: 1.5em;"></i> </span> </div><div id="fc-viewer-main-back" class="reverse-flashcard green-bg"><div class="fc-viewer-content"></div><span class="mark-favorite" style="position: absolute; top: 10px; right: 10px; font-size: 22px;"><i class="fa fa-lg fa-star-o"></i></span></div></div></div><div class="col-md-4 fc-viewer-controls"><div class="fc-viewer-controls-middle"> <div class="fc-viewer-controls-middle-inner fc-back"><div class="fc-viewer-controls-answers mt-xs-0 mx-xs-0"><button id="right-answer" class="btn btn-success text-center btn-block" title="Mark this flashcard as CORRECT"><i class="fa fa-check"></i> Correct</button><button id="wrong-answer" class="btn text-center bg-red btn-block" title="Mark this flashcard as INCORRECT"><i class="fa fa-remove"></i> Incorrect</button></div><table class="table stats"><tr><td>Times flipped</td><td id="fc-viewer-tflipped" class="text-right">0</td></tr><tr><td>Marked as <em>correct</em></td><td id="fc-viewer-right" class="text-right">0</td></tr><tr><td>Marked as <em>incorrect</em></td><td id="fc-viewer-wrong" class="text-right">0</td></tr></table><a href="#" class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-block text-center reset-stats hidden-xs hidden-sm" title="Reset stats for this flashcard" style="margin: 10px 0;"><i class="fa fa-undo"></i> Reset</a> <div class="fc-notes-container hidden-xs hidden-sm"><textarea class="form-control notes fc-back card-notes" rows="4" placeholder="Write your own notes here..." style="resize: none;">
</textarea><a href="#" class="btn btn-default btn-sm btn-block text-center save-notes" title="Save personal notes for this flashcard" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><i class="fa fa-pencil"></i> Save notes</a> </div><div class="fc-viewer-actions-sm hidden-md hidden-lg"><button type="button" class="btn btn-sm btn-xs-block reset-stats"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-undo"></i>Reset</button> <button type="button" class="btn btn-sm btn-xs-block" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#card-notes-sm-modal"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-pencil"></i>Notes</button><button type="button" class="btn btn-sm btn-xs-block" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#report-problem-sm-modal"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-exclamation-circle"></i>Report error</button></div> </div></div><div class="fc-viewer-controls-bottom hidden-xs hidden-sm"><div class="fc-move"> <button class="btn bg-turquoise text-center disabled" rel="prev" title="Previous flashcard"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-left"></i>Prev</button><button class="btn bg-turquoise text-center disabled" rel="next" title="Next flashcard">Next<i class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i></button></div><div class="fc-actions"><button class="btn btn-default btn-block text-center shuffle"><i class="fa fa-random"></i> Shuffle</button><div class="fc-progress"><div class="progress"><div class="progress-bar"></div></div><div class="text-right"><span class="fc-viewer-results-counter"></span></div></div></div></div><div class="fc-close-sm hidden-md hidden-lg"><button id="fc-xs-close" type="button" class="btn btn-default btn-block text-center" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close">Close</button> <hr class="thin"> <div class="fc-actions" style="width: 100%;"> <button class="btn btn-default btn-block text-center shuffle"> <i class="fa fa-random"></i> Shuffle </button><div class="fc-progress"><div class="progress"><div class="progress-bar"></div></div><div class="text-right"><span class="fc-viewer-results-counter hidden-md hidden-lg"></span></div></div> </div></div></div></div></div><div class="modal-footer"><div id="report-error-container" class="report-problem"><div class="row"><div class="col-md-8"><div class="msg"></div><div class="form-group"><label>Report a problem for flashcard <span class="fc-viewer-id"></span></label><textarea class="form-control issue-description" cols="4"></textarea></div><button type="button" class="btn btn-primary pull-right send-report disabled"><i class="fa fa-paper-plane"></i>Send</button><button id="close-send-report" type="button" class="btn btn-default" style="margin-left: 0;">Close</button></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div id="card-notes-sm-modal" class="modal fade overlay-modal" tabindex="-1" role="dialog"><div class="modal-dialog modal-sm" role="document"><div class="modal-content"><div class="modal-header p-xs-3"><h4 class="modal-title text-center my-xs-2">Notes</h4></div><div class="modal-body p-xs-3"><textarea class="form-control notes fc-back card-notes p-xs-3" rows="8" style="resize: none;">
</textarea></div><div class="modal-footer p-xs-3"><button type="button" class="btn btn-sm btn-primary btn-xs-block save-notes"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-pencil"></i>Save</button><button type="button" class="btn btn-sm btn-default btn-xs-block mx-xs-0" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close">Close</button></div></div></div></div><div id="report-problem-sm-modal" class="modal fade overlay-modal report-problem" tabindex="-1" role="dialog"><div class="modal-dialog modal-sm" role="document"><div class="modal-content"><div class="modal-header p-xs-3"><h4 class="modal-title text-center my-xs-2">Report a problem for flashcard <span class="fc-viewer-id"></span></h4></div><div class="modal-body p-xs-3"><div class="msg"></div><div class="form-group mb-xs-0"><textarea class="form-control issue-description p-xs-3" rows="8"></textarea></div></div><div class="modal-footer p-xs-3"><button type="button" class="btn btn-sm btn-primary text-center btn-xs-block mb-xs-3 disabled send-report"><i class="fa fa-fw fa-paper-plane"></i>Send</button><button type="button" class="btn btn-sm btn-default text-center btn-xs-block mx-xs-0" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close">Close</button></div></div></div></div> <div id="fcgame-viewer" class="modal fade modal-flashcard" tabindex="-1" role="dialog"> <div class="modal-dialog modal-lg modal-dialog-fcgame" role="document"> <div class="modal-content mc-flashcard modal-content-fcgame"> <div class="modal-header" style="background-color: #fafafa;"> <div class="row text-center" style="width: 100%;"> <div class="col-md-12"> <div style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between; align-items: center;"> <div class="text-left"> Your time: <span class="chronometer c-mobile" id="chronometer">00:00:</span> <span class="chronometer msec c-mobile" id="chronometer-msec">000</span> <br> Your best time: <span class="chronometer c-mobile" id="best-record"></span> </div> <button type="button" class="close" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close"> <span aria-hidden="true">×</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="fcgame-body" class=" modal-body modal-body-fcgame"> <div class="row-fluid"> <div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-sm-12 fc-content" id="fc-content" style="padding: 15px;"></div> </div> </div> <div id="end-game" style="display: none;"> <div class="col-lg-10 col-lg-offset-1 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1 col-sm-10 col-sm-offset-1 result shadow-bottom"> <div id="end-game-dismiss"></div> <div id="end-game-results"></div> <div id="show-percent" style="margin-bottom: 30px;font-size: 16px;"></div> </div> <div id="end-game-fc" class="col-lg-12"></div> </div> <div id="start-game" class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-sm-12 centered"> <div style="width: 200px;"> <button class="btn btn-success btn-xs-block" id="play-game" style="display: block; width: 100%; margin: 10px 0;">Start</button> <button class="btn btn-default btn-xs-block" id="cancel-game" style="display: block; width: 100%; margin: 10px 0;">Cancel</button> </div> </div> <div class="modal-footer"></div> </div> </div></div><div id="fcgame-modal-issue-report" class="modal fade" tabindex="-1" role="dialog"> <div class="modal-dialog" role="document"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-header"> <button type="button" class="close" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close"><span aria-hidden="true">×</span></button> <h4 class="modal-title">Report error</h4> </div> <div class="modal-body"> <textarea id="issue-description-fcgame" class="form-control"></textarea> </div> <div class="modal-footer"> <button id="send-report-fcgame" type="button" class="btn btn-primary">Send Report</button> </div> </div> </div></div> </article> <hr class="hidden-md hidden-lg"> <div class="hidden-md hidden-lg mt-xs-3"> <button class="btn btn-default btn-block text-xs-center" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#modal-feedback" style="margin-bottom: 10px"><i class="fa fa-send"></i> Feedback</button> </div> </div> <input type="hidden" id="user-id" value="38342"></div><input id="ticket" type="hidden" value="082b9c9c4ae3624d"><input id="tzoffset" type="hidden" value="new"><input id="fp" class="fp" type="hidden" value=""></div><div id="std-footer"> <div class="wmap"> <div class="layout-wrapper"> <p> <a href="https://www.inthinking.net"> © <span id="footer-year"></span> <em>InThinking</em> <script>document.getElementById("footer-year").innerHTML = new Date().getFullYear();</script> </a> | <a target="_self" href="../../../about.html"> About us </a> | <a target="_self" href="../../../terms-and-conditions.html"> Legal </a> | <a target="_self" href="../../../contact.html"> Contact </a> </p> <p> <a class="social" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/#!/inthinker"> <img src="../../../img/social/twitter-square.svg"> Twitter </a> <a class="social" target="_blank" href="https://www.facebook.com/inthinking.net"> <img src="../../../img/social/facebook-square.svg"> Facebook </a> <a class="social" target="_blank" href="https://www.linkedin.com/profile/view?id=139741989"> <img src="../../../img/social/linkedin-square.svg"> LinkedIn </a> </p> </div> </div></div><script src="../../../js/jquery-1.11.3.min.js"></script><script src="../../../js/bootstrap.min.js"></script><script src="../../../js/jquery-fancybox/jquery.fancybox.min.js"></script><script>var pageId = 882;</script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/std-galleries.min.js"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/jqueryui/jquery-ui-custom.min.js"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/jqueryui/jquery.ui.touch-punch.js"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/std-quizzes-helpers.min.js?v=20220406"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/std-quizzes.min.js?v=2022041300"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/jq-boxfit/jquery.boxfit.min.js"></script><script src="../../../ajax/libs/mathjax/2.7.0/MathJax.js?config=TeX-AMS-MML_HTMLorMML"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/flashcards/flashcards-utils.min.js?v=202211221200"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/flashcards/std-flashcards.min.js?v=202211221000"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/hammerjs/hammerjs.min-1.js?v=20220414"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/jqueryui/jquery-ui.min.js"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/jqueryui/jquery.ui.touch-punch.min.js"></script><script src="../../../js/user/page-my-progress.min.js?v=202211221000"></script><script>var sAJAX='/pages/subjects/activity/user-stats-page.php?t=082b9c9c4ae3624d&p=882&s=7&x=1936';var sData='k4iA6GSB03BgPm1NwdPRPHpsE3KeSVBAEzP5PHpsE39FIxiA6GSB0bfjSYyBPm1FC3v36GyBWHCl7bf4SGarS0iBPFAF7YcHEKvr6GSDPmjoPnyBSnKR74P5GDcSezAFWGcrE0ij6GyDPmjn6GyDEzAF7bKFEYv86GB2Pm1FPFAF7YcrZxP5PBAh63sBWGBDSViq0xvA6GSB0xXNwdi7I3ahSncREGqrI0ar7HKmSVK4Eziv';var loopSecs = 30;var minSecsLog = 60;var lsKey = '7-83606-882';</script><script src="../../../js/subjects/activity/user-stats-page.min.js?v=202205311700"></script><script src="../../../js/subjects/activity/my-favorites.min.js?v=20220610"></script><script src="../../../js/subjects/periodic-table.min.js"></script><script src="../../../js/subjects/feedback.min.js?v=202211221000"></script><script>var sessionUpdateSecs = 300;</script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/session-updater.js"></script><script>(function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){(i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o),m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m)})(window,document,'script','https://www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga');ga('create', 'UA-98480796-1', 'auto');ga('send', 'pageview');</script><script src="../../../js/devicefp/devicefp.min.js"></script><script src="../../../js/jq-quickfit/jq-quickfit.min.js?v=20220201"></script><script src="../../../js/frontpage-subjects.min.js?v=202211161300"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="../../../js/studyib-jq.min.js?v=202211241300"></script><script type="text/javascript">$(document).ready(function(){ $('#trigger-modal-video-overview').click(function() { if( $('#modal-video-overview .modal-body iframe').attr('src').length == 0 ) { $('#modal-video-overview .modal-body iframe').attr('src', 'https://www.youtube.com/embed/hxxtdiLdTFk?rel=0'); } }); $('#modal-video-overview').on('hidden.bs.modal', function() { $('#modal-video-overview .modal-body iframe').attr('src', ''); }); });</script></body></html>