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href="../19290/introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html">Introduction to biochemistry </a></li><li><a href="../19287/proteins-enzymes--1.html">Proteins & enzymes </a></li><li><a href="../19291/lipids-1.html">Lipids</a></li><li><a href="../19299/carbohydrates--1.html">Carbohydrates </a></li><li><a href="../19305/vitamins--1.html">Vitamins </a></li><li><a href="../19313/biochemistry-the-environment--1.html">Biochemistry & the environment </a></li><li><a href="../19336/proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html">Proteins & enzymes (AHL) </a></li><li><a href="../19347/nucleic-acids--1.html">Nucleic acids </a></li><li><a href="../19361/biological-pigments--1.html">Biological pigments </a></li><li><a href="../19366/stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html">Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19390/option-c--1.html" class="father">Option C </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19391/energy-sources-1.html">Energy sources</a></li><li><a href="../19407/fossil-fuels-1.html">Fossil fuels</a></li><li><a href="../19411/nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html">Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html">Solar energy</a></li><li><a href="../19437/environmental-impact-global-warming-1.html">Environmental impact - global warming</a></li><li><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" class="father">Option D</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html">Aspirin & penicillin </a></li><li><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html">Opiates</a></li><li><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html">Antiviral medications </a></li><li><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html">Nuclear medicine </a></li><li><a href="../19273/drug-detection-analysis--1.html">Drug detection & analysis </a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16592/practical-scheme-of-work-ia--1.html">Practical scheme of work & IA </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16682/internal-assessment-1.html" class="father">Internal Assessment</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18892/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li><a href="../18896/timing-organisation--1.html">Timing & organisation </a></li><li><a href="../18905/choosing-the-research-question-1.html">Choosing the research question</a></li><li><a href="../18946/personal-engagement-1.html">Personal engagement</a></li><li><a href="../18950/exploration-1.html">Exploration</a></li><li><a href="../18957/analysis-1.html">Analysis</a></li><li><a href="../18965/evaluation-1.html">Evaluation</a></li><li><a href="../18966/communication-1.html">Communication</a></li><li><a href="../19882/internal-standardization-of-the-ia-1.html">Internal standardization of the IA</a></li><li><a href="../19901/submitting-the-samples-for-moderation-2.html">Submitting the samples for moderation</a></li><li><a href="../33754/ten-suggestions-for-ias-using-secondary-data-1.html">Ten suggestions for IAs using secondary data</a></li><li><a href="../37544/gaining-full-marks-for-a-databased-ia--1.html">Gaining full marks for a databased IA </a></li><li><a href="../19506/ia-example-marking-exercise--1.html">IA example & marking exercise </a></li><li><a href="../23929/genuine-examples-of-moderated-ia-reports-1.html">Genuine examples of moderated IA reports</a></li><li><a href="../25234/examples-of-teacher-marked-ia-reports--1.html">Examples of teacher-marked IA reports </a></li><li><a href="../37542/history-of-internal-assessment-1.html">History of Internal Assessment</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16598/mandatory-laboratory-components-1.html" class="father">Mandatory laboratory components</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16613/formula-of-magnesium-oxide--1.html">Formula of magnesium oxide </a></li><li><a href="../16612/determining-the-mr-of-an-unknown-gas-1.html">Determining the <i>M</i><sub>r</sub> of an unknown gas</a></li><li><a href="../16615/acid-base-titrations--1.html">Acid-base titrations </a></li><li><a href="../16616/a-green-acid-base-practical-1.html">A green acid-base practical</a></li><li><a href="../16617/analysis-of-aspirin-tablets-1.html">Analysis of aspirin tablets</a></li><li><a href="../16618/caco3-in-egg-shells-1.html">CaCO<sub>3</sub> in egg shells</a></li><li><a href="../16644/enthalpy-changes-1.html">Enthalpy changes</a></li><li><a href="../16631/reaction-rates-1.html">Reaction rates</a></li><li><a href="../16635/rate-dependent-factors-1.html">Rate-dependent factors</a></li><li><a href="../16636/determining-ea-for-a-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>E</i><sub>a</sub> for a reaction</a></li><li><a href="../16637/iodination-of-propanone-1.html">Iodination of propanone</a></li><li><a href="../18144/titrations-with-a-ph-meter-1.html">Titrations with a pH meter</a></li><li><a href="../18355/redox-titration-with-kmno4--1.html">Redox titration with KMnO<sub>4</sub> </a></li><li><a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></li><li><a href="../16659/3-d-molecular-modelling--1.html">3-D molecular modelling </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17168/other-good-practicals-1.html" class="father">Other good practicals</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../17196/common-chemical-reactions-1.html">Common chemical reactions</a></li><li><a href="../227/elements-oxides-of-the-third-period--1.html">Elements & oxides of the third period </a></li><li><a href="../17239/the-halogens-1.html">The halogens</a></li><li><a href="../17162/boiling-points-of-mixtures-1.html">Boiling points of mixtures</a></li><li><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html">Polarity of molecules</a></li><li><a href="../18083/le-chateliers-principle--1.html">Le Chatelier's principle </a></li><li><a href="../19582/determining-kc-for-an-esterification-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>K</i><sub>c</sub> for an esterification reaction</a></li><li><a href="../18164/redox-reactions-of-vanadium--1.html">Redox reactions of vanadium </a></li><li><a href="../18351/chlorine-in-swimming-pools--1.html">Chlorine in swimming pools </a></li><li><a href="../18178/analysis-of-cuii-ions-in-solution--1.html">Analysis of Cu(II) ions in solution </a></li><li><a href="../18179/percentage-of-copper-in-brass-1.html">Percentage of copper in brass</a></li><li><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html">Electrolytic cells </a></li><li><a href="../18598/reactions-of-organic-compounds-1.html">Reactions of organic compounds</a></li><li><a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a></li><li><a href="../18784/preparation-of-13-dinitrobenzene--1.html">Preparation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene </a></li><li><a href="../19022/determination-of-an-organic-structure-1.html">Determination of an organic structure</a></li><li><a href="../19887/preparation-of-nylon-66-1.html">Preparation of nylon 6,6</a></li><li><a href="../19343/determination-of-vitamin-c-content--1.html">Determination of vitamin C content </a></li><li><a href="../19342/hydrolysis-of-starch--1.html">Hydrolysis of starch </a></li><li><a href="../19159/preparation-purification-of-aspirin--1.html">Preparation & purification of aspirin </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../18851/ict-in-practical-work-1.html" class="father">ICT in practical work</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18852/data-logging--1.html">Data logging </a></li><li><a href="../18853/software-for-graph-plotting--1.html">Software for graph plotting </a></li><li><a href="../18854/spreadsheets-for-data-processing--1.html">Spreadsheets for data processing </a></li><li><a href="../18855/databases-1.html">Databases</a></li><li><a href="../18856/computer-modelling-simulations--1.html">Computer modelling & simulations </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16594/group-4-project-1.html" class="father">Group 4 Project</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16595/practicalities-1.html">Practicalities</a></li><li><a href="../16596/reflective-statement--2.html">Reflective statement </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16666/a-new-laboratory-1.html">A new laboratory?</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16284/exams-1.html">Exams</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16286/essential-facts-1.html" class="father">Essential Facts</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16287/objectives-command-terms-1.html">Objectives & command terms</a></li><li><a href="../16288/grade-descriptors-1.html">Grade descriptors</a></li><li><a href="../16289/grade-boundaries-1.html">Grade boundaries</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16302/paper-1-multiple-choice-1.html" class="father">Paper 1 (Multiple Choice)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16303/advice-to-students-paper-1-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 1)</a></li><li><a href="../31515/practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16305/paper-2-1.html" class="father">Paper 2</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16306/advice-to-students-paper-2-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 2)</a></li><li><a href="../16307/areas-of-difficulty-1.html">Areas of difficulty</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16313/paper-3--1.html" class="father">Paper 3 </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a 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href="../16323/retaking-the-exam-1.html">Retaking the exam</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16325/faqs-1.html">FAQs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../3147/ib-core-1.html">IB Core</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../3149/learner-profile-1.html">Learner Profile</a></li><li><a href="../21735/extended-essays--1.html" class="father">Extended Essays </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../21736/overview--1.html">Overview </a></li><li><a href="../21780/responsibilities-1.html">Responsibilities</a></li><li><a href="../21790/resources-1.html">Resources</a></li><li><a href="../21800/research-1.html">Research</a></li><li><a href="../21804/writing-the-essay-1.html">Writing the essay</a></li><li><a href="../21810/assessment-1.html">Assessment</a></li><li><a href="../22434/summary-of-advice--1.html">Summary of advice </a></li><li><a href="../25272/faqs--1.html">FAQs </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../307/theory-of-knowledge-tok-1.html" class="father">Theory of Knowledge (TOK)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../41171/the-12-tok-concepts-1.html">The 12 TOK concepts</a></li><li><a href="../3507/why-tok-chemistry-1.html">Why TOK & Chemistry?</a></li><li><a href="../3505/a-modern-paradigm-1.html">A modern paradigm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17783/fast-track-to-tests-questions-1.html">Fast track to tests & questions</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../17784/sl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24351/sl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31519/sl-practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">SL Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li><li><a href="../17786/sl-questions-on-each-sub-topic-1.html">SL Questions on each sub-topic</a></li><li><a href="../20431/sl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">SL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17792/sl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">SL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24897/sl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics--1.html">SL Quizzes on option sub-topics </a></li><li><a href="../17785/hl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24352/hl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31520/hl-practice-paper-1-exams--1.html">HL Practice Paper 1 exams </a></li><li><a href="../17787/hl-questions-on-each-sub-topic--1.html">HL Questions on each sub-topic </a></li><li><a href="../20428/hl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">HL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17793/hl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">HL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24973/hl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics-1.html">HL Quizzes on option sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../41573/printable-versions-of-written-tasks--1.html">Printable versions of written tasks </a></li></ul></li><li><a 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href="../24867/proteins-enzymes-hl-answers-1.html" title="Proteins & enzymes (HL) answers">Proteins & enzymes (HL) answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19347/nucleic-acids--1.html" title="Nucleic acids ">Nucleic acids </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24993/mc-test-nucleic-acids-1.html" title="MC test: Nucleic acids">MC test: Nucleic acids</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19360/nucleic-acids-questions--1.html" title="Nucleic acids questions ">Nucleic acids questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24869/nucleic-acids-answers-1.html" title="Nucleic acids answers">Nucleic acids answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa 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biomolecules</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25034/mc-test-stereochemistry-in-biomolecules--1.html" title="MC test: Stereochemistry in biomolecules ">MC test: Stereochemistry in biomolecules </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19373/stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-questions-1.html" title="Stereochemistry in biomolecules questions">Stereochemistry in biomolecules questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24871/stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-answers--1.html" title="Stereochemistry in biomolecules answers ">Stereochemistry in biomolecules answers </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19390/option-c--1.html" title="Option C ">Option C </a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19391/energy-sources-1.html" title="Energy sources">Energy sources</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25112/mc-test-energy-sources-1.html" title="MC test: Energy sources">MC test: Energy sources</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19404/energy-sources-questions--1.html" title="Energy sources questions ">Energy sources questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25025/energy-sources-answers-1.html" title="Energy sources answers">Energy sources answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19407/fossil-fuels-1.html" title="Fossil fuels">Fossil fuels</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" 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href="../25188/mc-test-nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html" title="MC test: Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions">MC test: Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19421/nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-questions-1.html" title="Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission questions">Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25180/nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-answers-1.html" title="Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission answers">Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html" title="Solar energy">Solar energy</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a 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global warming</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19450/environmental-impact-global-warming-questions--1.html" title="Environmental impact - global warming questions ">Environmental impact - global warming questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25190/environmental-impact-global-warming-answers-1.html" title="Environmental impact - global warming answers">Environmental impact - global warming answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html" title="Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25258/mc-test-electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html" title="MC test: Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells">MC test: Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19455/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-questions-1.html" title="Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells questions">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25204/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-answers-1.html" title="Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells answers">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html" title="Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) ">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25269/mc-test-nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-hl-1.html" title="MC test: Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission (HL)">MC test: Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission (HL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19468/nuclear-fusion-fission-reactions-hl-questions--1.html" title="Nuclear fusion & fission reactions (HL) questions ">Nuclear fusion & fission reactions (HL) questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25205/nuclear-fusion-fission-reactions-hl-answers-1.html" title="Nuclear fusion & fission reactions (HL) answers">Nuclear fusion & fission reactions (HL) answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html" title="Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25302/mc-test-photovoltaic-cells-dsscs-1.html" title="MC test: Photovoltaic cells & DSSCs">MC test: Photovoltaic cells & DSSCs</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19471/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-questions--1.html" title="Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs questions ">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25206/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-answers-1.html" title="Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs answers">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs answers</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" title="Option D">Option D</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html" title="Pharmaceutical products & drug action ">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25440/mc-test-pharmaceutical-products-drug-action-1.html" title="MC test: Pharmaceutical products & drug action">MC test: Pharmaceutical products & drug action</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19154/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action-questions--1.html" title="Pharmaceutical products & drug action questions ">Pharmaceutical products & drug action questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25270/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action-answers--1.html" title="Pharmaceutical products & drug action answers ">Pharmaceutical products & drug action answers </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html" title="Aspirin & penicillin ">Aspirin & penicillin </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25684/mc-test-aspirin-penicillin-1.html" title="MC test: Aspirin & penicillin">MC test: Aspirin & penicillin</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19171/aspirin-penicillin-questions-1.html" title="Aspirin & penicillin questions">Aspirin & penicillin questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25313/aspirin-penicillin-answers--1.html" title="Aspirin & penicillin answers ">Aspirin & penicillin answers </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html" title="Opiates">Opiates</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25494/mc-test-opiates-1.html" title="MC test: Opiates">MC test: Opiates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19176/opiates-questions-1.html" title="Opiates questions">Opiates questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25356/opiates-answers--1.html" title="Opiates answers ">Opiates answers </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html" title="pH regulation of the stomach">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25683/mc-test-ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html" title="MC test: pH regulation of the stomach">MC test: pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19185/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-questions--1.html" title="pH regulation of the stomach questions ">pH regulation of the stomach questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25391/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-answers-1.html" title="pH regulation of the stomach answers">pH regulation of the stomach answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html" title="Antiviral medications ">Antiviral medications </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25685/mc-test-antiviral-medications-1.html" title="MC test: Antiviral medications">MC test: Antiviral medications</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19195/antiviral-medications-questions-1.html" title="Antiviral medications questions">Antiviral medications questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25521/antiviral-medications-answers--1.html" title="Antiviral medications answers ">Antiviral medications answers </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html" title="Environmental impact of some medications">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25686/mc-test-environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html" title="MC test: Environmental impact of some medications">MC test: Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19216/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-questions-1.html" title="Environmental impact of some medications questions">Environmental impact of some medications questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25628/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-answers-1.html" title="Environmental impact of some medications answers">Environmental impact of some medications answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html" title="Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25687/mc-test-taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html" title="MC test: Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study">MC test: Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19256/taxol-questions--1.html" title="Taxol questions ">Taxol questions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../25638/taxol-answers-1.html" title="Taxol answers">Taxol answers</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html" title="Nuclear medicine ">Nuclear medicine </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../26020/mc-test-nuclear-medicine-1.html" title="MC test: Nuclear 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</div><section id="main-content"><div id="toc-1672969660" class="toc"><a href="#" class="toc-switcher" title="Show table of contents"><small><i class="fa fa-reorder"></i> Table of contents <span class="pull-right"><i class="fa fa-chevron-down"></i></span></small></a></div><h1><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/standard-1.png"> <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"><strong> A.7 </strong>Environmental impact - plastics <strong>(2 hours)</strong></h1><hr class="hidden"><div class="pinkBg"><div><h2><strong>Pause for thought</strong></h2><p>Three highly relevant items for ‘Pause for thought’ have already been included elsewhere. The harmful effects of low molecular mass phthalate esters are discussed in <a href="../19665/polymers--1.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Options » Option A » Polymers ">A.5 Polymers</a>, the effects of PCBs on the environment are discussed in <a href="../19313/biochemistry-the-environment--1.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Options » Option B » Biochemistry & the environment ">B.6 Biochemistry & the environment</a> and the effects of the dioxins used in the Vietnam War are discussed in the practical on the <a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Practical scheme of work » Other good practicals » Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a>.</p><p>This ‘Pause for thought’ focuses on the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, which is alluded to under International Mindedness. A quick search will reveal many articles written on this. One good one is by <a href="http://www.theoceancleIB Docs (2) Teamp.com/great-pacific-garbage-patch/">Ocean CleIB Docs (2) Teamp</a>. Essentially the Great Pacific Garbage Patch consists of not one but two separate patches, one located off the coast of Japan and the other between Hawaii and California.</p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014-Options/Option-A/plastic-ocean-gyres2.jpg" style="width: 530px; height: 298px;"></p><p style="text-align: center;">The two 'Garbage Patches' in the Pacific Ocean - image from <a href="http://sdca.wordpress.com/2009/07/21/floating-rubbish-dump-in-the-pacific/">sdca.wordpress.com</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p>They are caused by ocean gyres. A gyre describes the system of circular currents in the ocean caused by a combination of the Earth’s wind patterns and forces due to the Earth’s rotation. In the centre of these gyres the sea is relatively calm so all the debris collects there. Most of this is plastic due to the fact that most plastics do not degrade at all readily in the environment. You can find many videos on this but one of the comments often attached to them is “if this garbage patch is so big why do you not actually show pictures of it?” The reason is that although the plastics do not decompose chemically they do break down physically into ever more smaller particles known as ‘microplastics’ many of which are too small to be seen with the naked eye. The videos tend to concentrate on the larger pieces of plastic found in the stomach of birds etc. but the microplastics are also extremely harmful particularly to plankton feeders. They also reduce the amount of sunlight penetrating below the ocean’s surface. Because the plastics ‘belong’ to no one country and the cost of cleaning up the ocean would be huge, currently very little is being done to solve the problem. The effect on marine wildlife is huge and the problem is continually increasing even though eventually some of the plastic does sink to the ocean floor.</p><hr class="hidden"></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><div><h2><strong>Nature of Science</strong></h2><p>The development and use of plastics is a good example of how scientific research often proceeds with perceived benefits in mind. Only later do the risks and implications become more apparent.</p><hr class="hidden"></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><table align="left" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><div class="yellowBg"><div><h2 id="anchor-3"><strong><strong>Learning outcomes</strong></strong></h2><p>After studying this topic students should be able to:</p><p><strong><strong>Understand:</strong></strong></p><ul><li>Plastics do not degrade easily because they contain strong covalent bonds.</li><li>The burning of polyvinyl chloride releases dioxins, hydrogen chloride gas and incomplete hydrocarbon as combustion products.</li><li>Dioxins contain unsaturated six-member heterocyclic rings that include two oxygen atoms, usually in the 1- and 4- positions.</li><li>Chlorinated dioxins can cause hormone disruption, leading to damage to cells and genetic material.</li><li>The recycling of plastics requires more processing than other materials.</li><li>The methods used to recycle plastics are based on different resin types.</li></ul><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>Apply their knowledge to:</strong></p><ul><li>Deduce the equation for any given combustion reaction.</li><li>Discuss why recycling polymers is an energy intensive process.</li><li>Discuss the environmental impact of using plastics.</li><li>Compare the structures of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins.</li><li>Discuss possible health concerns of using volatile plasticizers to produce polymers.</li><li>Distinguish possible Resin Identification Codes (RICs) of plastics from an IR spectrum.</li></ul></div></div></td><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "></span></b></h4><div class="yellowBg"><div><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "><strong>Clarification notes</strong></span></b></h4><p>Dioxins have a very long half-life in the environment and can be passed on in the food chain.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and PCBs should both be considered as examples of carcinogenic chlorinated dioxins or dioxin-like substances.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>Phthalate esters should be considered as examples of plasticizers.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>Many toxins can be released in house fires due to the combustion of plastics (shower curtains, etc.). To help prevent these hazards low smoke zero halogen cabling is often used in wiring.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>Resin Identification Codes (RICs) can be found in Section 30 of the data booklet.</p><hr class="hidden"><p>The structures of various materials molecules are given in Section 31 of the data booklet.</p><hr class="hidden"><h4 id="anchor-5">International-mindedness</h4>Although a Mobius strip, designed in 1960s, is used as the international symbol for recycle, reuse and reduce, global recognition of this symbol ranks well below other symbols. What factors influence the recognition of symbols?<hr class="hidden">How can the problem of plastic floating in the Pacific Ocean gyre (known as 'the <a href="http://education.nationalgeographic.co.uk/encyclopedia/great-pacific-garbage-patch/">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a>' or 'Pacific trash vortex') be addressed internationally?</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><table align="left" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h2><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "><strong>Teaching tips</strong></span></b></h2><p>Although the heading of this topic is “Environmental impact – plastics” it is important to impress upon students that it does not only consider plastics. Chemicals used in their production (e.g. phthalate esters used as plasticizers) or compounds formed when certain plastics combust (e.g. dioxins) are also included in this topic. PCBs actually have no clear link with plastics, but are included because they share a structural similarity and toxicity to dioxins and their use has resulted in man-made pollution of the environment. Even though the use of PCBs was banned in 1970 their effects are still prevalent today.</p><p>Students should be able to recognise the basic structures of dioxins, PCBs, PCDDs and possibly phthalate esters. They should also be able to recognise absorptions due to specific functional groups in the infrared spectra of a compound in order to identify plastic types when using the Resin Identification Code (RIC). For example, polyethylene terephthalate, PET or PETE, shows a strong absorption at 1700-1750 cm<sup>-1</sup> due to the C=O group and PVC shows an absorption between 600-800 cm<sup>-1</sup> due to the C-Cl bond. Students are also expected to write equations for the combustion of polymers although these are presumably simple equations and would not include the formation of dioxins.</p><p>Other than these structures, i.r. absorptions and combustion equations the remainder of this topic is quite factual. Students will need to be aware of the fact that polymers are generally unreactive due to the strong covalent bonds they contain (although the C-Cl bond in chlorinated polymers is not so strong), this mainly explains why they persist in the environment. They also need to know the sources of the compounds mentioned and their health and environmental implications. Stress too the importance of recycling wherever possible and the need for high temperature incinerators when plastics are disposed of by combustion to ensure no dioxins are formed. Due to this and other reasons the disposal and recycling of plastics is an energy intensive process.</p><p>For some reason biodegradable plastics are not included in the programme so do not need to be covered, although they are probably worth mentioning in passing.</p></td><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Study guide</strong></span></b></h4><p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Basic%20information/New%20cover.jpg" style="width: 67px; height: 96px;"></p><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"></p><hr class="hidden"><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">Page 11<b>8</b></span></b></p><hr class="hidden"><h2>Questions</h2><p>For ten 'quiz' questions (for quick testing of knowledge and understanding with the answers explained) see <a href="../26857/mc-test-environmental-impact-plastics-1.html" title="Options » Option A » Environmental impact - plastics » MC test: Environmental impact - plastics">MC test: Environmental impact - plastics</a>.</p><p>For short-answer questions see <a href="../19847/environmental-impact-plastics-questions-1.html" title="Options » Option A » Environmental impact - plastics » Environmental impact - plastics questions">Environmental impact - plastics questions</a> together with the worked answers on a separate page <a href="../26057/environmental-impact-plastics-answers-1.html" title="Options » Option A » Environmental impact - plastics » Environmental impact - plastics answers">Environmental impact - plastics answers</a>.</p><hr class="hidden"><h4><span style=""><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Vocabulary list</strong></span></b></span></h4><p><span style=""><span style="font-weight: normal;">dioxin<br>polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)<br>polychlorinated benzodioxin (PCCD)<br>phthalate esters<br>Resin Identification Code (RIC)</span></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="greenBg"><div><h2 id="header-11">Teaching slides</h2><p>Teachers may wish to share these slides with students for learning or for reviewing key concepts.</p><div id="myCarousel-12" class="carousel slide" data-id="704"><!-- Carousel items --><div class="carousel-inner"><div class="active item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-1.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-1.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-2.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-2.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-3.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-3.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-4.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-4.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-5.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-5.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-6.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-6.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-7.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-7.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-8.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-8.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-9.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-9.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-704/a7-10.png" rel="gallery-704" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-10.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Environmental impact - plastics: </p></div></div></div><!-- Carousel nav --><a class="carousel-control left" href="#myCarousel-12" data-slide="prev">‹</a><a class="carousel-control right" href="#myCarousel-12" data-slide="next">›</a><div class="tib-indicators"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 10px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-1-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-2-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-3-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-4-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-5-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-6-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-7-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-8-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-9-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-704/a7-10-thumb128.jpg"></div></div><p> </p></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="pinkBg"><h2>Other resources</h2><p><strong>1. </strong>Dioxins, what they are and their possible health effects by IAQ Video Network.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/DELNWMUIqGQ?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/DELNWMUIqGQ" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-1" name="video-1"> </span> Dioxins and their health effects</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p><strong>2. </strong>A sobering account of the effects of Agent Orange 35 years after the end of the Vietnam War.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/kkbnFfldsOc?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/kkbnFfldsOc" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-2" name="video-2"> </span> The after effects of Agent Orange</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p><strong>3.</strong> PCBs, what they are, where they are found and the problems they cause by Paul Cochrane.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/Di0MKIDUya8?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/Di0MKIDUya8" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-3" name="video-3"> </span> PCBs</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p><strong>4.</strong> Boyan Slat proposes a radical clean-up solution to the Great Pacific Garbage Patch problem.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/ljrbtYlku-k?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/ljrbtYlku-k" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-4" name="video-4"> </span> Solving the Great Pacific Garbage Patch problem</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>5. </strong>A good resource for the infrared spectra of various plastics can be found at the site by <a href="http://core.materials.ac.uk/repository/doitpoms/tlp/artefact/infrared.swf">DoITPoMS</a> from the University of Cambridge. One of the most obvious things it shows is the difference between PTFE and all the other plastics as there is no absorption at about 3000 cm<sup>-1</sup> in the IR spectrum, since PTFE contains no C-H bonds.</p><hr class="hidden"></div></section></article><section id="media-extras"><div class="page-actions no-print navbar inline hidden-desktop"><div class="navbar-inner"><ul class="nav"><li><a class="presentation" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-desktop"></i></a></li><li><a class="print-section-blog" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-print"></i></a></li><li><a class="page-bookmarker" data-ticket="IB Docs (2) Team" data-pid="19843" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star"></i></a></li><li><a class="personal-notes" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-file-text"></i></a></li><li><a class="" data-toggle="modal" href="#modal-feedback" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></a></li><li class="dropdown"><a class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-target="#" href="#"><i class="fa fa-share-alt"></i></a><ul class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/share?text=%22Environmental+impact+-+plastics%22+-+via+%40InThinker+%23chemistry%0A&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F19843%2Fenvironmental-impact-plastics"><i class="fa fa-twitter-square"></i><span>Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F19843%2Fenvironmental-impact-plastics&t=Environmental+impact+-+plastics"><i class="fa fa-facebook-square"></i><span>Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F19843%2Fenvironmental-impact-plastics"><i class="fa fa-linkedin-square"></i><span>LinkedIn</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="https://plus.google.com/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F19843%2Fenvironmental-impact-plastics"><i class="fa fa-google-plus-square"></i><span>Google +</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="mailto:?subject=Environmental impact - plastics&body=Three highly relevant items for ‘Pause for thought’ have already been included elsewhere. The harmful effects of low molecular mass phthalate esters are discussed in A.5 Polymers, the effects of PCBs on the environment...%0Ahttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F19843%2Fenvironmental-impact-plastics"><i class="fa fa-envelope"></i><span>Email</span></a></li></ul></li><li><a class="" href="chemistry/teaching-materials"><i class="fa fa-puzzle-piece colored"></i></a></li></ul></div></div><div style="border-top: solid 1px #eee;border-bottom: solid 1px #eee;padding: 4px 0 4px 0;line-height: 1em;color: #666;font-size: .8em"><small><em>All materials on this website are for the exclusive use of teachers and students at subscribing schools for the period of their subscription. Any unauthorised copying or posting of materials on other websites is an infringement of our copyright and could result in your account being blocked and legal action being taken against you.</em></small></div></section><section id="comments"></section></div><!-- /#main-column -->
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