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<title>DP Chemistry: Covalent structures (2)</title>
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href="../19504/introduction-to-materials-science--1.html">Introduction to materials science </a></li><li><a href="../19519/metals-and-icp-spectroscopy-1.html">Metals and ICP spectroscopy</a></li><li><a href="../19541/catalysts--1.html">Catalysts </a></li><li><a href="../19580/liquid-crystals-1.html">Liquid crystals</a></li><li><a href="../19665/polymers--1.html">Polymers </a></li><li><a href="../19672/nanotechnology-1.html">Nanotechnology</a></li><li><a href="../19843/environmental-impact-plastics-1.html">Environmental impact - plastics</a></li><li><a href="../19858/superconducting-metals-x-ray-crystallography--1.html">Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography </a></li><li><a href="../19666/condensation-polymers-1.html">Condensation polymers</a></li><li><a href="../19916/environmental-impact-heavy-metals-1.html">Environmental impact - heavy metals</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19284/option-b--1.html" class="father">Option B </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19290/introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html">Introduction to biochemistry </a></li><li><a href="../19287/proteins-enzymes--1.html">Proteins & enzymes </a></li><li><a href="../19291/lipids-1.html">Lipids</a></li><li><a href="../19299/carbohydrates--1.html">Carbohydrates </a></li><li><a href="../19305/vitamins--1.html">Vitamins </a></li><li><a href="../19313/biochemistry-the-environment--1.html">Biochemistry & the environment </a></li><li><a href="../19336/proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html">Proteins & enzymes (AHL) </a></li><li><a href="../19347/nucleic-acids--1.html">Nucleic acids </a></li><li><a href="../19361/biological-pigments--1.html">Biological pigments </a></li><li><a href="../19366/stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html">Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19390/option-c--1.html" class="father">Option C </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19391/energy-sources-1.html">Energy sources</a></li><li><a href="../19407/fossil-fuels-1.html">Fossil fuels</a></li><li><a href="../19411/nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html">Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html">Solar energy</a></li><li><a href="../19437/environmental-impact-global-warming-1.html">Environmental impact - global warming</a></li><li><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" class="father">Option D</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html">Aspirin & penicillin </a></li><li><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html">Opiates</a></li><li><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html">Antiviral medications </a></li><li><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html">Nuclear medicine </a></li><li><a href="../19273/drug-detection-analysis--1.html">Drug detection & analysis </a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16592/practical-scheme-of-work-ia--1.html">Practical scheme of work & IA </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16682/internal-assessment-1.html" class="father">Internal Assessment</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18892/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li><a href="../18896/timing-organisation--1.html">Timing & organisation </a></li><li><a href="../18905/choosing-the-research-question-1.html">Choosing the research question</a></li><li><a href="../18946/personal-engagement-1.html">Personal engagement</a></li><li><a href="../18950/exploration-1.html">Exploration</a></li><li><a href="../18957/analysis-1.html">Analysis</a></li><li><a href="../18965/evaluation-1.html">Evaluation</a></li><li><a href="../18966/communication-1.html">Communication</a></li><li><a href="../19882/internal-standardization-of-the-ia-1.html">Internal standardization of the IA</a></li><li><a href="../19901/submitting-the-samples-for-moderation-2.html">Submitting the samples for moderation</a></li><li><a href="../33754/ten-suggestions-for-ias-using-secondary-data-1.html">Ten suggestions for IAs using secondary data</a></li><li><a href="../37544/gaining-full-marks-for-a-databased-ia--1.html">Gaining full marks for a databased IA </a></li><li><a href="../19506/ia-example-marking-exercise--1.html">IA example & marking exercise </a></li><li><a href="../23929/genuine-examples-of-moderated-ia-reports-1.html">Genuine examples of moderated IA reports</a></li><li><a href="../25234/examples-of-teacher-marked-ia-reports--1.html">Examples of teacher-marked IA reports </a></li><li><a href="../37542/history-of-internal-assessment-1.html">History of Internal Assessment</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16598/mandatory-laboratory-components-1.html" class="father">Mandatory laboratory components</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16613/formula-of-magnesium-oxide--1.html">Formula of magnesium oxide </a></li><li><a href="../16612/determining-the-mr-of-an-unknown-gas-1.html">Determining the <i>M</i><sub>r</sub> of an unknown gas</a></li><li><a href="../16615/acid-base-titrations--1.html">Acid-base titrations </a></li><li><a href="../16616/a-green-acid-base-practical-1.html">A green acid-base practical</a></li><li><a href="../16617/analysis-of-aspirin-tablets-1.html">Analysis of aspirin tablets</a></li><li><a href="../16618/caco3-in-egg-shells-1.html">CaCO<sub>3</sub> in egg shells</a></li><li><a href="../16644/enthalpy-changes-1.html">Enthalpy changes</a></li><li><a href="../16631/reaction-rates-1.html">Reaction rates</a></li><li><a href="../16635/rate-dependent-factors-1.html">Rate-dependent factors</a></li><li><a href="../16636/determining-ea-for-a-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>E</i><sub>a</sub> for a reaction</a></li><li><a href="../16637/iodination-of-propanone-1.html">Iodination of propanone</a></li><li><a href="../18144/titrations-with-a-ph-meter-1.html">Titrations with a pH meter</a></li><li><a href="../18355/redox-titration-with-kmno4--1.html">Redox titration with KMnO<sub>4</sub> </a></li><li><a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></li><li><a href="../16659/3-d-molecular-modelling--1.html">3-D molecular modelling </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17168/other-good-practicals-1.html" class="father">Other good practicals</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../17196/common-chemical-reactions-1.html">Common chemical reactions</a></li><li><a href="../227/elements-oxides-of-the-third-period--1.html">Elements & oxides of the third period </a></li><li><a href="../17239/the-halogens-1.html">The halogens</a></li><li><a href="../17162/boiling-points-of-mixtures-1.html">Boiling points of mixtures</a></li><li><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html">Polarity of molecules</a></li><li><a href="../18083/le-chateliers-principle--1.html">Le Chatelier's principle </a></li><li><a href="../19582/determining-kc-for-an-esterification-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>K</i><sub>c</sub> for an esterification reaction</a></li><li><a href="../18164/redox-reactions-of-vanadium--1.html">Redox reactions of vanadium </a></li><li><a href="../18351/chlorine-in-swimming-pools--1.html">Chlorine in swimming pools </a></li><li><a href="../18178/analysis-of-cuii-ions-in-solution--1.html">Analysis of Cu(II) ions in solution </a></li><li><a href="../18179/percentage-of-copper-in-brass-1.html">Percentage of copper in brass</a></li><li><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html">Electrolytic cells </a></li><li><a href="../18598/reactions-of-organic-compounds-1.html">Reactions of organic compounds</a></li><li><a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a></li><li><a href="../18784/preparation-of-13-dinitrobenzene--1.html">Preparation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene </a></li><li><a href="../19022/determination-of-an-organic-structure-1.html">Determination of an organic structure</a></li><li><a href="../19887/preparation-of-nylon-66-1.html">Preparation of nylon 6,6</a></li><li><a href="../19343/determination-of-vitamin-c-content--1.html">Determination of vitamin C content </a></li><li><a href="../19342/hydrolysis-of-starch--1.html">Hydrolysis of starch </a></li><li><a href="../19159/preparation-purification-of-aspirin--1.html">Preparation & purification of aspirin </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../18851/ict-in-practical-work-1.html" class="father">ICT in practical work</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18852/data-logging--1.html">Data logging </a></li><li><a href="../18853/software-for-graph-plotting--1.html">Software for graph plotting </a></li><li><a href="../18854/spreadsheets-for-data-processing--1.html">Spreadsheets for data processing </a></li><li><a href="../18855/databases-1.html">Databases</a></li><li><a href="../18856/computer-modelling-simulations--1.html">Computer modelling & simulations </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16594/group-4-project-1.html" class="father">Group 4 Project</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16595/practicalities-1.html">Practicalities</a></li><li><a href="../16596/reflective-statement--2.html">Reflective statement </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16666/a-new-laboratory-1.html">A new laboratory?</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16284/exams-1.html">Exams</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16286/essential-facts-1.html" class="father">Essential Facts</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16287/objectives-command-terms-1.html">Objectives & command terms</a></li><li><a href="../16288/grade-descriptors-1.html">Grade descriptors</a></li><li><a href="../16289/grade-boundaries-1.html">Grade boundaries</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16302/paper-1-multiple-choice-1.html" class="father">Paper 1 (Multiple Choice)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16303/advice-to-students-paper-1-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 1)</a></li><li><a href="../31515/practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16305/paper-2-1.html" class="father">Paper 2</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16306/advice-to-students-paper-2-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 2)</a></li><li><a href="../16307/areas-of-difficulty-1.html">Areas of difficulty</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16313/paper-3--1.html" class="father">Paper 3 </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16314/advice-to-students-paper-3-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 3)</a></li><li><a href="../16342/data-response-questions-1.html">Data response questions</a></li><li><a href="../20054/experimental-work-questions-1.html">Experimental work questions</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16324/the-examination-process-1.html" class="father">The examination process</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16316/setting-the-exam-papers-1.html">Setting the exam papers</a></li><li><a href="../16317/predicted-grades-1.html">Predicted grades</a></li><li><a href="../16318/marking-the-papers-1.html">Marking the papers</a></li><li><a href="../16319/commenting-on-the-exams-1.html">Commenting on the exams</a></li><li><a href="../16320/grade-awarding-1.html">Grade Awarding</a></li><li><a href="../16321/enquiry-upon-results-1.html">Enquiry upon results</a></li><li><a href="../16322/chief-examiners-report-1.html">Chief Examiner's report</a></li><li><a href="../16323/retaking-the-exam-1.html">Retaking the exam</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16325/faqs-1.html">FAQs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../3147/ib-core-1.html">IB Core</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../3149/learner-profile-1.html">Learner Profile</a></li><li><a href="../21735/extended-essays--1.html" class="father">Extended Essays </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../21736/overview--1.html">Overview </a></li><li><a href="../21780/responsibilities-1.html">Responsibilities</a></li><li><a href="../21790/resources-1.html">Resources</a></li><li><a href="../21800/research-1.html">Research</a></li><li><a href="../21804/writing-the-essay-1.html">Writing the essay</a></li><li><a href="../21810/assessment-1.html">Assessment</a></li><li><a href="../22434/summary-of-advice--1.html">Summary of advice </a></li><li><a href="../25272/faqs--1.html">FAQs </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../307/theory-of-knowledge-tok-1.html" class="father">Theory of Knowledge (TOK)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../41171/the-12-tok-concepts-1.html">The 12 TOK concepts</a></li><li><a href="../3507/why-tok-chemistry-1.html">Why TOK & Chemistry?</a></li><li><a href="../3505/a-modern-paradigm-1.html">A modern paradigm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17783/fast-track-to-tests-questions-1.html">Fast track to tests & questions</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../17784/sl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24351/sl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31519/sl-practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">SL Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li><li><a href="../17786/sl-questions-on-each-sub-topic-1.html">SL Questions on each sub-topic</a></li><li><a href="../20431/sl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">SL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17792/sl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">SL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24897/sl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics--1.html">SL Quizzes on option sub-topics </a></li><li><a href="../17785/hl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24352/hl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31520/hl-practice-paper-1-exams--1.html">HL Practice Paper 1 exams </a></li><li><a href="../17787/hl-questions-on-each-sub-topic--1.html">HL Questions on each sub-topic </a></li><li><a href="../20428/hl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">HL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17793/hl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">HL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24973/hl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics-1.html">HL Quizzes on option sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../41573/printable-versions-of-written-tasks--1.html">Printable versions of written tasks </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../41465/complete-course-for-students--2.html">Complete course for students </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../27988/full-coverage-of-each-topic-and-sub-topic-2.html" class="father">Full coverage of each topic and sub-topic</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../27959/topic-1-stoichiometric-relationships-1.html">Topic 1 : Stoichiometric relationships</a></li><li><a href="../27960/topics-2-12-atomic-structure-1.html">Topics 2 & 12 : Atomic structure</a></li><li><a href="../27965/topics-3-13-periodicity-1.html">Topics 3 & 13 : Periodicity</a></li><li><a href="../27971/topics-4-14-chemical-bonding-structure-1.html">Topics 4 & 14 : Chemical bonding & structure</a></li><li><a href="../27987/topics-5-15-energeticsthermochemistry-1.html">Topics 5 & 15 : Energetics/thermochemistry</a></li><li><a href="../27995/topics-6-16-chemical-kinetics-1.html">Topics 6 & 16 : Chemical kinetics</a></li><li><a href="../28001/topics-7-17-equilibrium--1.html">Topics 7 & 17 : Equilibrium 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style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18038/topics-7-17--1.html" title="Topics 7 & 17 ">Topics 7 & 17 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18040/equilibrium--1.html" title="Equilibrium ">Equilibrium </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24656/mc-test-equilibrium-1.html" title="MC test: Equilibrium">MC test: Equilibrium</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40959/equilibrium-questions-1.html" title="Equilibrium questions">Equilibrium questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18091/equilibrium-law--1.html" title="Equilibrium law ">Equilibrium law </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i 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test: Theories of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40963/theories-of-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Theories of acids & bases questions">Theories of acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18126/properties-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="Properties of acids & bases">Properties of acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24663/mc-test-properties-of-acids-bases--1.html" title="MC test: Properties of acids & bases ">MC test: Properties of acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40964/properties-of-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Properties of acids & bases questions">Properties of acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18140/ph-scale-1.html" title="pH scale">pH scale</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24668/mc-test-the-ph-scale-1.html" title="MC test: The pH scale">MC test: The pH scale</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40971/ph-scale-questions-1.html" title="pH scale questions">pH scale questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18152/strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="Strong & weak acids & bases">Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24670/mc-test-strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Strong & weak acids & bases">MC test: Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40972/strong-weak-acid-bases-questions-1.html" title="Strong & weak acid & bases questions">Strong & weak acid & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18156/acid-deposition-1.html" title="Acid deposition">Acid deposition</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24674/mc-test-acid-deposition-1.html" title="MC test: Acid deposition">MC test: Acid deposition</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40983/acid-deposition-questions-1.html" title="Acid deposition questions">Acid deposition questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18160/lewis-acids-bases-1.html" title="Lewis acids & bases">Lewis acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24710/mc-test-lewis-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Lewis acids & bases">MC test: Lewis acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40986/lewis-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Lewis acids & bases questions">Lewis acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18250/acid-base-calculations-1.html" title="Acid base calculations">Acid base calculations</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24714/mc-test-calculations-involving-acids-bases--1.html" title="MC test: Calculations involving acids & bases ">MC test: Calculations involving acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40988/acid-base-calculations-questions--1.html" title="Acid-base calculations questions ">Acid-base calculations questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../26161/ph-titration-curves-1.html" title="pH titration curves">pH titration curves</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../26158/mc-test-ph-curves-1.html" title="MC test: pH curves">MC test: pH curves</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41000/ph-curves-questions--1.html" title="pH curves questions ">pH curves questions </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18350/topics-9-19-1.html" title="Topics 9 & 19">Topics 9 & 19</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18365/oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction">Oxidation & reduction</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24725/mc-test-oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="MC test: Oxidation & reduction">MC test: Oxidation & reduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41033/oxidation-reduction-questions-1--1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (1) ">Oxidation & reduction questions (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41034/oxidation-reduction-questions-2-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (2)">Oxidation & reduction questions (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41035/oxidation-reduction-questions-3-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (3)">Oxidation & reduction questions (3)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18383/electrochemical-cells-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells">Electrochemical cells</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24740/mc-test-electrochemical-cells-1.html" title="MC test: Electrochemical cells">MC test: Electrochemical cells</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41072/electrochemical-cells-questions--1.html" title="Electrochemical cells questions ">Electrochemical cells questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18401/electrochemical-cells-ahl--1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (AHL) ">Electrochemical cells (AHL) </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24742/mc-test-electrochemical-cells-ahl-1.html" title="MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)">MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41098/electrochemical-cells-1-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41099/electrochemical-cells-2-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18475/topics-10-20--1.html" title="Topics 10 & 20 ">Topics 10 & 20 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18497/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry--1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry ">Fundamentals of organic chemistry </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24749/mc-test-fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="MC test: Fundamentals of organic chemistry">MC test: Fundamentals of organic chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41111/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1-questions-1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry (1) questions">Fundamentals of organic chemistry (1) questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41112/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-2-questions-1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry (2) questions">Fundamentals of organic chemistry (2) questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18597/alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24750/mc-test-alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="MC test: Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">MC test: Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41121/alkanes-questions-1.html" title="Alkanes questions">Alkanes questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41124/alkenes-questions-1.html" title="Alkenes questions">Alkenes questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18741/alcohols--1.html" title="Alcohols ">Alcohols </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24772/mc-test-alcohols-1.html" title="MC test: Alcohols">MC test: Alcohols</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41125/alcohols-questions-1.html" title="Alcohols questions">Alcohols questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18742/halogenoalkanes-benzene--1.html" title="Halogenoalkanes & benzene ">Halogenoalkanes & benzene </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24797/mc-test-halogenoalkanes-benzene-1.html" title="MC test: Halogenoalkanes & benzene">MC test: Halogenoalkanes & benzene</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41130/halogenoalkanes-benzene-questions-1.html" title="Halogenoalkanes & benzene questions">Halogenoalkanes & benzene questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18762/nucleophilic-substitution--1.html" title="Nucleophilic substitution ">Nucleophilic substitution </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24757/mc-test-nucleophilic-substitution-1.html" title="MC test: Nucleophilic substitution">MC test: Nucleophilic substitution</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41138/nucleophilic-substitution-questions-1.html" title="Nucleophilic substitution questions">Nucleophilic substitution questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18766/electrophilic-addition--1.html" title="Electrophilic addition ">Electrophilic addition </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24805/mc-test-electrophilic-addition-electrophilic-substitution-reacti-2.html" title="MC test: Electrophilic addition & electrophilic substitution reactions">MC test: Electrophilic addition & electrophilic substitution reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41148/electrophilic-addition-questions-1.html" title="Electrophilic addition questions">Electrophilic addition questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18780/electrophilic-substitution--2.html" title="Electrophilic substitution ">Electrophilic substitution </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41149/electrophilic-substitution-questions-1.html" title="Electrophilic substitution questions">Electrophilic substitution questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18793/reduction-reactions--1.html" title="Reduction reactions ">Reduction reactions </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24811/mc-test-reduction-reactions-1.html" title="MC test: Reduction reactions">MC test: Reduction reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41150/reduction-reactions-questions-1.html" title="Reduction reactions questions">Reduction reactions questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18797/synthetic-routes--1.html" title="Synthetic routes ">Synthetic routes </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24822/mc-test-synthetic-routes-1.html" title="MC test: Synthetic routes">MC test: Synthetic routes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41152/synthetic-routes-questions--1.html" title="Synthetic routes questions ">Synthetic routes questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18844/stereoisomerism--1.html" title="Stereoisomerism ">Stereoisomerism </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24817/mc-test-stereoisomerism-1.html" title="MC test: Stereoisomerism">MC test: Stereoisomerism</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41166/stereoisomerism-questions-1.html" title="Stereoisomerism questions">Stereoisomerism questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17285/topics-11-21--1.html" title="Topics 11 & 21 ">Topics 11 & 21 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17276/uncertainty-errors--1.html" title="Uncertainty & errors ">Uncertainty & errors </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24818/mc-test-uncertainties-errors-1.html" title="MC test: Uncertainties & errors">MC test: Uncertainties & errors</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../38869/uncertainty-error-questions--1.html" title="Uncertainty & error questions ">Uncertainty & error questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../15014/graphical-techniques-1.html" title="Graphical techniques">Graphical techniques</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24819/mc-test-graphical-techniques-1.html" title="MC test: Graphical techniques">MC test: Graphical techniques</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39387/graphical-techniques-questions--1.html" title="Graphical techniques questions ">Graphical techniques questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18968/spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-1.html" title="Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds">Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24820/mc-test-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds--1.html" title="MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds ">MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39388/index-of-hydrogen-deficiency-questions-1.html" title="Index of hydrogen deficiency questions">Index of hydrogen deficiency questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39351/identification-from-spectra-question-1-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 1">Identification from spectra - Question 1</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39353/identification-from-spectra-question-2-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 2">Identification from spectra - Question 2</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39354/identification-from-spectra-question-3-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 3">Identification from spectra - Question 3</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39355/identification-from-spectra-question-4-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 4">Identification from spectra - Question 4</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39356/identification-from-spectra-question-5-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 5">Identification from spectra - Question 5</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39357/identification-from-spectra-question-6-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 6">Identification from spectra - Question 6</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39358/identification-from-spectra-question-7-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 7">Identification from spectra - Question 7</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39359/identification-from-spectra-question-8-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 8">Identification from spectra - Question 8</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39360/identification-from-spectra-question-9-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 9">Identification from spectra - Question 9</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39361/identification-from-spectra-question-10-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 10">Identification from spectra - Question 10</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19027/spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl--1.html" title="Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL) ">Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL) </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24821/mc-test-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl-1.html" title="MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)">MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39375/identification-from-spectra-question-11-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 11">Identification from spectra - Question 11</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39376/identification-from-spectra-question-12-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 12">Identification from spectra - Question 12</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39377/identification-from-spectra-question-13-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 13">Identification from spectra - Question 13</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39378/identification-from-spectra-question-14-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 14">Identification from spectra - Question 14</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39379/identification-from-spectra-question-15-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 15">Identification from spectra - Question 15</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39380/identification-from-spectra-question-16-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 16">Identification from spectra - Question 16</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39381/identification-from-spectra-question-17-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 17">Identification from spectra - Question 17</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39382/identification-from-spectra-question-18-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 18">Identification from spectra - Question 18</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39383/identification-from-spectra-question-19-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 19">Identification from spectra - Question 19</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39385/identification-from-spectra-question-20-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 20">Identification from spectra - Question 20</a></li></ul></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16441/the-nature-of-science-1.html" title="The Nature of Science">The Nature of Science</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16450/key-terms-concepts-1.html" title="Key terms & concepts">Key terms & concepts</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../34566/nos-critical-thinking-1.html" title="NOS & Critical Thinking">NOS & Critical Thinking</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../32100/how-the-elements-were-named-1.html" title="How the elements were named">How the elements were named</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a 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Periodicity & transition metals (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16861/4-14-chemical-bonding-structure-1-1.html" title="4 & 14. Chemical bonding & structure (1)">4 & 14. Chemical bonding & structure (1)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16862/4-14-chemical-bonding-structure-2-1.html" title="4 & 14. Chemical bonding & structure (2)">4 & 14. Chemical bonding & structure (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16894/5-15-energetics-thermochemistry-1--1.html" title="5 & 15. Energetics & thermochemistry (1) ">5 & 15. Energetics & thermochemistry (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16893/5-15-energetics-thermochemistry-2--1.html" title="5 & 15. Energetics & thermochemistry (2) ">5 & 15. 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</div><section id="main-content"><div id="toc-1672970213" class="toc"><a href="#" class="toc-switcher" title="Show table of contents"><small><i class="fa fa-reorder"></i> Table of contents <span class="pull-right"><i class="fa fa-chevron-down"></i></span></small></a></div><h1><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/standard-1.png"> <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> 4.3 & <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> 14.1 Covalent structures (2) (2 hours)</h1><hr class="hidden"><h1>Geometry of simple molecules & ions</h1><p>This is the second part of 4.3 Covalent structures and looks at VSEPR theory to determine the shapes of simple molecules and ions. Since the underlying theory is the same it also includes 5 and 6 electrons pairs around the central atom which is on the Higher Level programme under 14.1.</p><hr class="hidden"><div class="pinkBg"><div><h2>Pause for thought</h2><p>Part of sub-topic 4.3 is to predict the bond angles in species with two, three and four electrons domains. The classic example used for both Standard and Higher Level students is to compare the bond angles in methane, ammonia and water. It all seems highly logical. In methane all the four pairs of electrons (electron domains) are bonding pairs so repel each other equally to give a regular tetrahedron with bond angles of 109.5<sup>o</sup>. Ammonia contains one non-bonding pair which repels bonding pairs more than other bonding pairs so the bond angle decreases to about 108<sup>o </sup>in the trigonal pyramid molecule. The two non-bonding pairs in water cause even more repulsion so the bond angle in the bent molecule decreases further to about 104.5<sup>o</sup>. This can be found in all the text books and the theory perfectly matches the experimentally found bond angles.</p><p style="text-align: center; "><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Core%20%26%20AHL/Topics%204%20%26%2014/ammonia.png" style="width: 240px; height: 133px;"> <img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Core%20%26%20AHL/Topics%204%20%26%2014/water.svg.png" style="width: 250px; height: 109px;"></p><p>However this is yet another case of where the IB (and other pre-university courses) conveniently does not explore further as the logic appears flawed. Consider applying the same logic to phosphorus trichloride. Like ammonia there are three bonding pairs and only one non-bonding pair so one would expect the bond angle to be just less than 109.5<sup>o</sup> and more than 104.5<sup>o</sup>. In fact the bond angle is 100<sup>o</sup>. You might argue that it is the chlorine that perhaps makes the difference. So let's look at phosphine where the only difference with ammonia is that a phosphorus atom has replaced the nitrogen atom. The bond angle of 93.5<sup>o</sup> is even lower than phosphorus trichloride and considerably lower than the H-O-H bond angle in water where there are two non-bonding pairs.</p><p style="text-align: center; "><img alt="" class="noborder" height="162" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core and AHL/Bonding/PCl3.png" title="Phosphorus trichloride molecule (image from Wikimedia commons)" width="250"> <img alt="" class="noborder" height="164" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core and AHL/Bonding/Phosphine.png" title="Phosphine molecule (image from Wikimedia commons)" width="150"></p><p>An astute student might argue that the bond angle also depends upon the period where the central atom is located since nitrogen and oxygen are in period 2 and phosphorus is in period 3. There is some truth in this. What would you expect the bond angle in hydrogen sulfide to be? On the simple theory it might be expected to be similar to water i.e. about 104.5<sup>o</sup>. If we now use what we know about phosphine then we might expect it to be a little less than 93.5<sup>o</sup>. Guess what - it is 92.1<sup>o </sup>- our new theory works! We could extend this and try to predict the bond angle for sulfur dichloride. Using our new logic we might expect it to be perhaps one or two degrees less than the 100<sup>o</sup> in phosphorus trichloride as there are now two non-bonding pairs of electrons? Wrong! It is 103<sup>o</sup>.</p><p style="text-align: center; "><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Core%20%26%20AHL/Topics%204%20%26%2014/hydrogen-sulfide-2d-dimensions.svg.png" style="width: 230px; height: 129px;"> <img alt="" class="noborder" height="131" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core and AHL/Bonding/Sulfur-dichloride-2D-dimensions.png" title="Sulfur dichloride molecule (image from Wikimedia commons)" width="250"></p><p>Clearly it is not nearly as simple as it is made out. Can we really expect students to predict these bond angles so that they agree with the experimentally determined values?</p><hr class="hidden"><p>I don't think so!!</p><hr class="hidden"></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><h2>Nature of Science</h2><p>Models are used by scientists as representations of the real world—VSEPR (the model of the shapes of simple molecules and ions) has been developed to explain observable properties.</p><hr class="hidden"></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><table align="left" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h3><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "></span></b></h3><div class="yellowBg"><div><h2><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "><strong>Learning outcomes</strong></span></b></h2><p><span style="font-weight: normal; ">After studying this topic students should be able to:</span></p><p><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "><strong>Understand:</strong></span></b></p><ul><li>Shapes of simple molecules and ions are determined by the repulsion of electron pairs according to VSEPR theory.</li></ul><p><strong>Apply their knowledge to:</strong></p><ul><li>Use VSEPR theory to predict the electron domain geometry and the molecular geometry for species with two, three and four electron domains.</li><li>Predict bond angles from molecular geometry and the presence of non-bonding pairs of electrons.</li><li>Predict molecular polarity from bond polarity and molecular geometry.</li><li><img alt="laugh" class="ico" height="16" src="../../../img/tib-icons/higher-level-16-1.png" title="laugh" width="16"> only: Deduce using VSEPR theory the electron domain geometry and molecular<br>geometry with five and six electron domains and associated bond angles.</li></ul></div></div></td><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"></span></b></h4><div class="yellowBg"><div><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Clarification notes</strong></span></b></h4><p>The term “electron domain” will be used in place of “negative charge centre”.</p><p>Although not specifically listed on the programme suitable examples might include CH<sub>4</sub>, NH<sub>3</sub>, H<sub>2</sub>O, NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>, H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>, BF<sub>3</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>, SO<sub>2</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub>.</p><p><img alt="laugh" class="ico" height="16" src="../../../img/tib-icons/higher-level-16-1.png" title="laugh" width="16"> only: Molecular polarities of geometries corresponding to five and six electron domains should also be covered.</p><p><img alt="laugh" class="ico" height="16" src="../../../img/tib-icons/higher-level-16-1.png" title="laugh" width="16"> only: For five and six electron domains suitable examples might include XeF<sub>4</sub>, PF<sub>5</sub>, PCl<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup>, BrF<sub>3</sub>, ICl<sub>4</sub><sup>–</sup>, PF<sub>6</sub><sup>–</sup> and SF<sub>6</sub>.</p><hr class="hidden"><h4><strong>International-mindedness</strong></h4><p>(Nothing is listed in the programme for international-mindedness under this sub-topic)</p></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><table align="left" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h2><span style=""><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Teaching tips</strong></span></b></span></h2><p>You can get students to arrive at shapes by considering the hybridization of the central atom. However as hybridization is not on the syllabus for Standard Level and as d<sup>2</sup>sp<sup>3</sup> hybridization is not on the syllabus for Higher Level it is best not to go down this path except perhaps for carbon compounds with Higher Level students.</p><p>In fact VSEPR theory is very simple to explain (even though students seem to find it difficult - see <a href="../16311/vsepr.html">Paper 2: Areas of difficulty VSEPR)</a>. Electron pairs (domains) try to arrange themselves so that they are as far away from each other as possible. This leads to the basic shapes for 2,3,4,5 and 6 pairs. To find the actual shape there are really only three points to consider:<br>1. How many pairs of electrons are there around the central atom?<br>2. A double or triple bond counts as one pair of electrons (hence the use of 'electron domains' rather than 'electrons pairs').<br>3. Non-bonding pairs exert a greater repulsion than bonding pairs?</p><p>I then work through the possibilities with some of the classic examples:<br><br>2 pairs: BeCl<sub>2</sub>, CO<sub>2</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>, HCN<br><br>3 bonding pairs: BF<sub>3</sub>, BCl<sub>3</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>, CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2–</sup><sup> </sup><br>2 bonding & 1 non-bonding pairs: SO<sub>2</sub>, O<sub>3</sub><br><br>4 bonding pairs: CH<sub>4</sub>, SiCl<sub>4</sub>, NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>, BF<sub>4</sub><sup>–</sup><br>3 bonding & 1 non-bonding pairs: NH<sub>3</sub>, PCl<sub>3</sub>, H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup><br>2 bonding & 2 non-bonding pairs: H<sub>2</sub>O, H<sub>2</sub>S</p><p>Then explain why the H-O-H bond angle for H<sub>2</sub>O is smaller than H-N-H bond angle in NH<sub>3</sub> which in turn is smaller than H-C-H bond angle in CH<sub>4</sub></p><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> For Higher Level only<br>5 pairs: PF<sub>5</sub>, BrF<sub>3</sub>, ICl<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>, SCl<sub>4</sub><br>6 pairs: SF<sub>6</sub>, PF<sub>6</sub><sup>–</sup>, XeF<sub>4</sub>, ICl<sub>4</sub><sup>–</sup></p><p>Throughout all of this get them to make actual three dimensional models of each shape that they can hold in their hands (rather than just see on a two-dimensional screen) and explain bond angles and how the 3-D shapes can be drawn (represented) in two-dimensions.</p><p>Once the shapes are known molecular polarities are relatively straightforward.</p><p>One problem you might encounter with five pairs is how to name the shape formed when there are four bonding pairs and one non-bonding pair. This is the case for sulfur tetrafluoride, SF<sub>4</sub>. I have variously seen K-shaped, distorted tetrahedral or see-saw. See-saw is the name given in<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_tetrafluoride"> Wikipedia</a>.</p><hr class="hidden"></td><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "><strong>Study guide</strong></span></b></h4><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"><img alt="" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Basic%20information/New%20cover.jpg" style="width: 67px; height: 96px;"></p><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"></p><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">Page 2</span></b><span style="font-weight: normal;">7 </span></p><hr class="hidden"><h2>Questions</h2><p>For ten 'quiz' multiple choice questions with the answers explained see <a href="../24481/mc-test-covalent-structures-2--1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 4 & 14 » Covalent structures (2) » MC test: Covalent structures (2) ">MC test: Covalent structures (2)</a>.</p>For short-answer questions which can be set as an assignment for a test, homework or given for self study together with model answers see <a href="../40918/shapes-polarity-questions.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 4 & 14 » Covalent structures (2) » Shapes & polarity questions">Shapes & polarity questions</a>.<hr class="hidden"><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Vocabulary list</strong></span></b></h4><p>electron domain<br>bent<br>trigonal planar<br>trigonal pyramid<br>trigonal bipyramid<br>octahedral<br>square planar<br>orthogonal<br>see-saw<br>VSEPR</p><hr class="hidden"><h4><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold;"><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc.</strong></span></b></span></h4><p>See <a href="../17055/topics-4-14--1.html">separate page</a> which covers all of Topic 4 & 14.</p><hr class="hidden"><h2>Practical work</h2><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/lab-1.png"> Make three-dimensional models of all the shapes.<br><br><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/lab-1.png"> Use burettes containing polar and non-polar liquids and a charged rod.<br><br><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/lab-1.png"> Use water and a non-polar, non-inflammable liquid (such as CCl<sub>4</sub>) in a beaker in a microwave oven.</a></p><hr class="hidden"></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="greenBg"><h2 id="anchor-12">Teaching slides</h2><p>Teachers may wish to share these slides with students for learning or for reviewing key concepts.</p><div id="myCarousel-13" class="carousel slide" data-id="241"><!-- Carousel items --><div class="carousel-inner"><div class="active item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-1.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-1.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-2.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-2.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/replacement.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/replacement.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-4.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-4.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-5.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-5.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-6.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-6.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-7.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-7.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-8.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-8.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-9.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-9.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-10.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-10.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-11.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-11.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-12.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-12.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-13.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-13.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-14.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-14.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-15.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-15.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/432-16.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-16.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-241/17.png" rel="gallery-241" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/17.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Covalent structures (2): </p></div></div></div><!-- Carousel nav --><a class="carousel-control left" href="#myCarousel-13" data-slide="prev">‹</a><a class="carousel-control right" href="#myCarousel-13" data-slide="next">›</a><div class="tib-indicators"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 10px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-1-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-2-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/replacement-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-4-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-5-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-6-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-7-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-8-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-9-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-10-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-11-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-12-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-13-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-14-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-15-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/432-16-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-241/17-thumb128.jpg"></div></div><p> </p></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="blueBg"><h2><span style="font-weight: bold;">Other resources</span></h2><p><strong>1. </strong>A rather nice animation of shapes by a student - Ashley Jennings</p><p style="text-align: center; "><object height="288" width="360"><param name="quality" value="high"><param name="allowScriptAccess" value="always"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/i3FCHVlSZc4?version=3&hl=en_GB&rel=0"><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"><embed allowscriptaccess="always" height="288" quality="high" src="http://www.youtube.com/v/i3FCHVlSZc4?version=3&hl=en_GB&rel=0" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="360"></object></p><p style="text-align: center; "><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/i3FCHVlSZc4?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center; "><a href="youtu.be/i3FCHVlSZc4" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-1" name="video-1"> </span> VSEPR theory </a></p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>2.</strong> A tutorial by Joey Smokey from Clark College 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This is just a lecture but the diagrams of the shapes are very clear.</p><p style="text-align: center; "><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/QwpH0fEwwmo?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center; "><a href="youtu.be/QwpH0fEwwmo" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-2" name="video-2"> </span> Molecular shapes</a></p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center; "></p></div></section></article><section id="media-extras"><div class="page-actions no-print navbar inline hidden-desktop"><div class="navbar-inner"><ul class="nav"><li><a class="presentation" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-desktop"></i></a></li><li><a class="print-section-blog" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-print"></i></a></li><li><a class="page-bookmarker" data-ticket="IB Docs (2) Team" data-pid="17122" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star"></i></a></li><li><a class="personal-notes" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-file-text"></i></a></li><li><a class="" data-toggle="modal" href="#modal-feedback" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></a></li><li class="dropdown"><a class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-target="#" href="#"><i class="fa fa-share-alt"></i></a><ul class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/share?text=%22Covalent+structures+%282%29%22+-+via+%40InThinker+%23chemistry%0A&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F17122%2Fcovalent-structures-2"><i class="fa fa-twitter-square"></i><span>Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F17122%2Fcovalent-structures-2&t=Covalent+structures+(2)"><i class="fa fa-facebook-square"></i><span>Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F17122%2Fcovalent-structures-2"><i class="fa fa-linkedin-square"></i><span>LinkedIn</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="https://plus.google.com/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F17122%2Fcovalent-structures-2"><i class="fa fa-google-plus-square"></i><span>Google +</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="mailto:?subject=Covalent structures (2)&body=This is the second part of 4.3 Covalent structures and looks at VSEPR theory to determine the shapes of simple molecules and ions. 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