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href="../19290/introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html">Introduction to biochemistry </a></li><li><a href="../19287/proteins-enzymes--1.html">Proteins & enzymes </a></li><li><a href="../19291/lipids-1.html">Lipids</a></li><li><a href="../19299/carbohydrates--1.html">Carbohydrates </a></li><li><a href="../19305/vitamins--1.html">Vitamins </a></li><li><a href="../19313/biochemistry-the-environment--1.html">Biochemistry & the environment </a></li><li><a href="../19336/proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html">Proteins & enzymes (AHL) </a></li><li><a href="../19347/nucleic-acids--1.html">Nucleic acids </a></li><li><a href="../19361/biological-pigments--1.html">Biological pigments </a></li><li><a href="../19366/stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html">Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19390/option-c--1.html" class="father">Option C </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19391/energy-sources-1.html">Energy sources</a></li><li><a href="../19407/fossil-fuels-1.html">Fossil fuels</a></li><li><a href="../19411/nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html">Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html">Solar energy</a></li><li><a href="../19437/environmental-impact-global-warming-1.html">Environmental impact - global warming</a></li><li><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" class="father">Option D</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html">Aspirin & penicillin </a></li><li><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html">Opiates</a></li><li><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html">Antiviral medications </a></li><li><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html">Nuclear medicine </a></li><li><a href="../19273/drug-detection-analysis--1.html">Drug detection & analysis </a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16592/practical-scheme-of-work-ia--1.html">Practical scheme of work & IA </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16682/internal-assessment-1.html" class="father">Internal Assessment</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18892/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li><a href="../18896/timing-organisation--1.html">Timing & organisation </a></li><li><a href="../18905/choosing-the-research-question-1.html">Choosing the research question</a></li><li><a href="../18946/personal-engagement-1.html">Personal engagement</a></li><li><a href="../18950/exploration-1.html">Exploration</a></li><li><a href="../18957/analysis-1.html">Analysis</a></li><li><a href="../18965/evaluation-1.html">Evaluation</a></li><li><a href="../18966/communication-1.html">Communication</a></li><li><a href="../19882/internal-standardization-of-the-ia-1.html">Internal standardization of the IA</a></li><li><a href="../19901/submitting-the-samples-for-moderation-2.html">Submitting the samples for moderation</a></li><li><a href="../33754/ten-suggestions-for-ias-using-secondary-data-1.html">Ten suggestions for IAs using secondary data</a></li><li><a href="../37544/gaining-full-marks-for-a-databased-ia--1.html">Gaining full marks for a databased IA </a></li><li><a href="../19506/ia-example-marking-exercise--1.html">IA example & marking exercise </a></li><li><a href="../23929/genuine-examples-of-moderated-ia-reports-1.html">Genuine examples of moderated IA reports</a></li><li><a href="../25234/examples-of-teacher-marked-ia-reports--1.html">Examples of teacher-marked IA reports </a></li><li><a href="../37542/history-of-internal-assessment-1.html">History of Internal Assessment</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16598/mandatory-laboratory-components-1.html" class="father">Mandatory laboratory components</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16613/formula-of-magnesium-oxide--1.html">Formula of magnesium oxide </a></li><li><a href="../16612/determining-the-mr-of-an-unknown-gas-1.html">Determining the <i>M</i><sub>r</sub> of an unknown gas</a></li><li><a href="../16615/acid-base-titrations--1.html">Acid-base titrations </a></li><li><a href="../16616/a-green-acid-base-practical-1.html">A green acid-base practical</a></li><li><a href="../16617/analysis-of-aspirin-tablets-1.html">Analysis of aspirin tablets</a></li><li><a href="../16618/caco3-in-egg-shells-1.html">CaCO<sub>3</sub> in egg shells</a></li><li><a href="../16644/enthalpy-changes-1.html">Enthalpy changes</a></li><li><a href="../16631/reaction-rates-1.html">Reaction rates</a></li><li><a href="../16635/rate-dependent-factors-1.html">Rate-dependent factors</a></li><li><a href="../16636/determining-ea-for-a-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>E</i><sub>a</sub> for a reaction</a></li><li><a href="../16637/iodination-of-propanone-1.html">Iodination of propanone</a></li><li><a href="../18144/titrations-with-a-ph-meter-1.html">Titrations with a pH meter</a></li><li><a href="../18355/redox-titration-with-kmno4--1.html">Redox titration with KMnO<sub>4</sub> </a></li><li><a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></li><li><a href="../16659/3-d-molecular-modelling--1.html">3-D molecular modelling </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17168/other-good-practicals-1.html" class="father">Other good practicals</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../17196/common-chemical-reactions-1.html">Common chemical reactions</a></li><li><a href="../227/elements-oxides-of-the-third-period--1.html">Elements & oxides of the third period </a></li><li><a href="../17239/the-halogens-1.html">The halogens</a></li><li><a href="../17162/boiling-points-of-mixtures-1.html">Boiling points of mixtures</a></li><li><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html">Polarity of molecules</a></li><li><a href="../18083/le-chateliers-principle--1.html">Le Chatelier's principle </a></li><li><a href="../19582/determining-kc-for-an-esterification-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>K</i><sub>c</sub> for an esterification reaction</a></li><li><a href="../18164/redox-reactions-of-vanadium--1.html">Redox reactions of vanadium </a></li><li><a href="../18351/chlorine-in-swimming-pools--1.html">Chlorine in swimming pools </a></li><li><a href="../18178/analysis-of-cuii-ions-in-solution--1.html">Analysis of Cu(II) ions in solution </a></li><li><a href="../18179/percentage-of-copper-in-brass-1.html">Percentage of copper in brass</a></li><li><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html">Electrolytic cells </a></li><li><a href="../18598/reactions-of-organic-compounds-1.html">Reactions of organic compounds</a></li><li><a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a></li><li><a href="../18784/preparation-of-13-dinitrobenzene--1.html">Preparation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene </a></li><li><a href="../19022/determination-of-an-organic-structure-1.html">Determination of an organic structure</a></li><li><a href="../19887/preparation-of-nylon-66-1.html">Preparation of nylon 6,6</a></li><li><a href="../19343/determination-of-vitamin-c-content--1.html">Determination of vitamin C content </a></li><li><a href="../19342/hydrolysis-of-starch--1.html">Hydrolysis of starch </a></li><li><a href="../19159/preparation-purification-of-aspirin--1.html">Preparation & purification of aspirin </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../18851/ict-in-practical-work-1.html" class="father">ICT in practical work</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18852/data-logging--1.html">Data logging </a></li><li><a href="../18853/software-for-graph-plotting--1.html">Software for graph plotting </a></li><li><a href="../18854/spreadsheets-for-data-processing--1.html">Spreadsheets for data processing </a></li><li><a href="../18855/databases-1.html">Databases</a></li><li><a href="../18856/computer-modelling-simulations--1.html">Computer modelling & simulations </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16594/group-4-project-1.html" class="father">Group 4 Project</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16595/practicalities-1.html">Practicalities</a></li><li><a href="../16596/reflective-statement--2.html">Reflective statement </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16666/a-new-laboratory-1.html">A new laboratory?</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16284/exams-1.html">Exams</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16286/essential-facts-1.html" class="father">Essential Facts</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16287/objectives-command-terms-1.html">Objectives & command terms</a></li><li><a href="../16288/grade-descriptors-1.html">Grade descriptors</a></li><li><a href="../16289/grade-boundaries-1.html">Grade boundaries</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16302/paper-1-multiple-choice-1.html" class="father">Paper 1 (Multiple Choice)</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16303/advice-to-students-paper-1-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 1)</a></li><li><a href="../31515/practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16305/paper-2-1.html" class="father">Paper 2</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16306/advice-to-students-paper-2-1.html">Advice to students (Paper 2)</a></li><li><a href="../16307/areas-of-difficulty-1.html">Areas of difficulty</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16313/paper-3--1.html" class="father">Paper 3 </a><ul class="level-2"><li><a 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options</a></li><li><a href="../24897/sl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics--1.html">SL Quizzes on option sub-topics </a></li><li><a href="../17785/hl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24352/hl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">HL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31520/hl-practice-paper-1-exams--1.html">HL Practice Paper 1 exams </a></li><li><a href="../17787/hl-questions-on-each-sub-topic--1.html">HL Questions on each sub-topic </a></li><li><a href="../20428/hl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">HL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17793/hl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">HL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24973/hl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics-1.html">HL Quizzes on option sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../41573/printable-versions-of-written-tasks--1.html">Printable versions of written tasks </a></li></ul></li><li><a 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class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24660/mc-test-the-equilibrium-law-1.html" title="MC test: The equilibrium law">MC test: The equilibrium law</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40961/equilibrium-law-questions-1.html" title="Equilibrium law questions">Equilibrium law questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18120/topics-8-18--1.html" title="Topics 8 & 18 ">Topics 8 & 18 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18124/theories-of-acids-bases--1.html" title="Theories of acids & bases ">Theories of acids & bases </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24662/mc-test-theories-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Theories of acids & bases">MC test: Theories of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40963/theories-of-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Theories of acids & bases questions">Theories of acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18126/properties-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="Properties of acids & bases">Properties of acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24663/mc-test-properties-of-acids-bases--1.html" title="MC test: Properties of acids & bases ">MC test: Properties of acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40964/properties-of-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Properties of acids & bases questions">Properties of acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18140/ph-scale-1.html" title="pH scale">pH scale</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24668/mc-test-the-ph-scale-1.html" title="MC test: The pH scale">MC test: The pH scale</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40971/ph-scale-questions-1.html" title="pH scale questions">pH scale questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18152/strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="Strong & weak acids & bases">Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24670/mc-test-strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Strong & weak acids & bases">MC test: Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40972/strong-weak-acid-bases-questions-1.html" title="Strong & weak acid & bases questions">Strong & weak acid & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18156/acid-deposition-1.html" title="Acid deposition">Acid deposition</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24674/mc-test-acid-deposition-1.html" title="MC test: Acid deposition">MC test: Acid deposition</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40983/acid-deposition-questions-1.html" title="Acid deposition questions">Acid deposition questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18160/lewis-acids-bases-1.html" title="Lewis acids & bases">Lewis acids & bases</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24710/mc-test-lewis-acids-bases-1.html" title="MC test: Lewis acids & bases">MC test: Lewis acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40986/lewis-acids-bases-questions-1.html" title="Lewis acids & bases questions">Lewis acids & bases questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18250/acid-base-calculations-1.html" title="Acid base calculations">Acid base calculations</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24714/mc-test-calculations-involving-acids-bases--1.html" title="MC test: Calculations involving acids & bases ">MC test: Calculations involving acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../40988/acid-base-calculations-questions--1.html" title="Acid-base calculations questions ">Acid-base calculations questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../26161/ph-titration-curves-1.html" title="pH titration curves">pH titration curves</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../26158/mc-test-ph-curves-1.html" title="MC test: pH curves">MC test: pH curves</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41000/ph-curves-questions--1.html" title="pH curves questions ">pH curves questions </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18350/topics-9-19-1.html" title="Topics 9 & 19">Topics 9 & 19</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18365/oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction">Oxidation & reduction</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24725/mc-test-oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="MC test: Oxidation & reduction">MC test: Oxidation & reduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41033/oxidation-reduction-questions-1--1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (1) ">Oxidation & reduction questions (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41034/oxidation-reduction-questions-2-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (2)">Oxidation & reduction questions (2)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41035/oxidation-reduction-questions-3-1.html" title="Oxidation & reduction questions (3)">Oxidation & reduction questions (3)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18383/electrochemical-cells-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells">Electrochemical cells</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24740/mc-test-electrochemical-cells-1.html" title="MC test: Electrochemical cells">MC test: Electrochemical cells</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41072/electrochemical-cells-questions--1.html" title="Electrochemical cells questions ">Electrochemical cells questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18401/electrochemical-cells-ahl--1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (AHL) ">Electrochemical cells (AHL) </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24742/mc-test-electrochemical-cells-ahl-1.html" title="MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)">MC test: Electrochemical cells (AHL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41098/electrochemical-cells-1-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (1) (AHL) questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41099/electrochemical-cells-2-ahl-questions-1.html" title="Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions">Electrochemical cells (2) (AHL) questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18475/topics-10-20--1.html" title="Topics 10 & 20 ">Topics 10 & 20 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18497/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry--1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry ">Fundamentals of organic chemistry </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24749/mc-test-fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="MC test: Fundamentals of organic chemistry">MC test: Fundamentals of organic chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41111/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1-questions-1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry (1) questions">Fundamentals of organic chemistry (1) questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41112/fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-2-questions-1.html" title="Fundamentals of organic chemistry (2) questions">Fundamentals of organic chemistry (2) questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18597/alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24750/mc-test-alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="MC test: Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">MC test: Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41121/alkanes-questions-1.html" title="Alkanes questions">Alkanes questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41124/alkenes-questions-1.html" title="Alkenes questions">Alkenes questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18741/alcohols--1.html" title="Alcohols ">Alcohols </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24772/mc-test-alcohols-1.html" title="MC test: Alcohols">MC test: Alcohols</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41125/alcohols-questions-1.html" title="Alcohols questions">Alcohols questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18742/halogenoalkanes-benzene--1.html" title="Halogenoalkanes & benzene ">Halogenoalkanes & benzene </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24797/mc-test-halogenoalkanes-benzene-1.html" title="MC test: Halogenoalkanes & benzene">MC test: Halogenoalkanes & benzene</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41130/halogenoalkanes-benzene-questions-1.html" title="Halogenoalkanes & benzene questions">Halogenoalkanes & benzene questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18762/nucleophilic-substitution--1.html" title="Nucleophilic substitution ">Nucleophilic substitution </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24757/mc-test-nucleophilic-substitution-1.html" title="MC test: Nucleophilic substitution">MC test: Nucleophilic substitution</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41138/nucleophilic-substitution-questions-1.html" title="Nucleophilic substitution questions">Nucleophilic substitution questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18766/electrophilic-addition--1.html" title="Electrophilic addition ">Electrophilic addition </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24805/mc-test-electrophilic-addition-electrophilic-substitution-reacti-2.html" title="MC test: Electrophilic addition & electrophilic substitution reactions">MC test: Electrophilic addition & electrophilic substitution reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41148/electrophilic-addition-questions-1.html" title="Electrophilic addition questions">Electrophilic addition questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18780/electrophilic-substitution--2.html" title="Electrophilic substitution ">Electrophilic substitution </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41149/electrophilic-substitution-questions-1.html" title="Electrophilic substitution questions">Electrophilic substitution questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18793/reduction-reactions--1.html" title="Reduction reactions ">Reduction reactions </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24811/mc-test-reduction-reactions-1.html" title="MC test: Reduction reactions">MC test: Reduction reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41150/reduction-reactions-questions-1.html" title="Reduction reactions questions">Reduction reactions questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18797/synthetic-routes--1.html" title="Synthetic routes ">Synthetic routes </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24822/mc-test-synthetic-routes-1.html" title="MC test: Synthetic routes">MC test: Synthetic routes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41152/synthetic-routes-questions--1.html" title="Synthetic routes questions ">Synthetic routes questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18844/stereoisomerism--1.html" title="Stereoisomerism ">Stereoisomerism </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24817/mc-test-stereoisomerism-1.html" title="MC test: Stereoisomerism">MC test: Stereoisomerism</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41166/stereoisomerism-questions-1.html" title="Stereoisomerism questions">Stereoisomerism questions</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17285/topics-11-21--1.html" title="Topics 11 & 21 ">Topics 11 & 21 </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17276/uncertainty-errors--1.html" title="Uncertainty & errors ">Uncertainty & errors </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24818/mc-test-uncertainties-errors-1.html" title="MC test: Uncertainties & errors">MC test: Uncertainties & errors</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../38869/uncertainty-error-questions--1.html" title="Uncertainty & error questions ">Uncertainty & error questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../15014/graphical-techniques-1.html" title="Graphical techniques">Graphical techniques</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24819/mc-test-graphical-techniques-1.html" title="MC test: Graphical techniques">MC test: Graphical techniques</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39387/graphical-techniques-questions--1.html" title="Graphical techniques questions ">Graphical techniques questions </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../18968/spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-1.html" title="Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds">Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24820/mc-test-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds--1.html" title="MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds ">MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39388/index-of-hydrogen-deficiency-questions-1.html" title="Index of hydrogen deficiency questions">Index of hydrogen deficiency questions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39351/identification-from-spectra-question-1-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 1">Identification from spectra - Question 1</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39353/identification-from-spectra-question-2-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 2">Identification from spectra - Question 2</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39354/identification-from-spectra-question-3-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 3">Identification from spectra - Question 3</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39355/identification-from-spectra-question-4-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 4">Identification from spectra - Question 4</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39356/identification-from-spectra-question-5-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 5">Identification from spectra - Question 5</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39357/identification-from-spectra-question-6-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 6">Identification from spectra - Question 6</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39358/identification-from-spectra-question-7-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 7">Identification from spectra - Question 7</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39359/identification-from-spectra-question-8-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 8">Identification from spectra - Question 8</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39360/identification-from-spectra-question-9-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 9">Identification from spectra - Question 9</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39361/identification-from-spectra-question-10-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 10">Identification from spectra - Question 10</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../19027/spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl--1.html" title="Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL) ">Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL) </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../24821/mc-test-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl-1.html" title="MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)">MC test: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39375/identification-from-spectra-question-11-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 11">Identification from spectra - Question 11</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39376/identification-from-spectra-question-12-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 12">Identification from spectra - Question 12</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39377/identification-from-spectra-question-13-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 13">Identification from spectra - Question 13</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39378/identification-from-spectra-question-14-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 14">Identification from spectra - Question 14</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39379/identification-from-spectra-question-15-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 15">Identification from spectra - Question 15</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39380/identification-from-spectra-question-16-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 16">Identification from spectra - Question 16</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39381/identification-from-spectra-question-17-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 17">Identification from spectra - Question 17</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39382/identification-from-spectra-question-18-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 18">Identification from spectra - Question 18</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39383/identification-from-spectra-question-19-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 19">Identification from spectra - Question 19</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../39385/identification-from-spectra-question-20-1.html" title="Identification from spectra - Question 20">Identification from spectra - Question 20</a></li></ul></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16441/the-nature-of-science-1.html" title="The Nature of Science">The Nature of Science</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16450/key-terms-concepts-1.html" title="Key terms & concepts">Key terms & concepts</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../34566/nos-critical-thinking-1.html" title="NOS & Critical Thinking">NOS & Critical Thinking</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../32100/how-the-elements-were-named-1.html" title="How the elements were named">How the elements were named</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../36753/the-culture-of-chemistry-1.html" title="The Culture of Chemistry">The Culture of Chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../17333/nature-of-science-questions-1.html" title="Nature of Science questions">Nature of Science questions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16413/incorporating-im-tok-utilization-etc-1.html" title="Incorporating IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc.">Incorporating IM, TOK, 'Utilization' etc.</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16414/topic-1-1.html" title="Topic 1">Topic 1</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../16916/topics-2-12-1.html" title="Topics 2 & 12">Topics 2 & 12</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a 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</div><section id="main-content"><div id="toc-1672972882" class="toc"><a href="#" class="toc-switcher" title="Show table of contents"><small><i class="fa fa-reorder"></i> Table of contents <span class="pull-right"><i class="fa fa-chevron-down"></i></span></small></a></div><h1><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/higher-1.png"> 12.1 Electrons in atoms (2 hours)</h1><div class="pinkBg"><div><h2>Pause for thought</h2><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center; "><img alt="" class="noborder" height="180" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/Core%20and%20AHL/atomic%20structure/Hydrogen_discharge_tube.jpg" title="A hydoigen gas discharge tube (image from Wikimedia commons)" width="540"></p><p style="text-align: center; ">Hydrogen gas discharge tube</p><hr class="hidden"><p>Each element has a unique atomic spectrum which consists of discrete lines and is therefore not continuous. The simplest element, hydrogen has lines in the visible region at wavelengths of 656 nm, 486 nm, 434 nm 410 nm etc. which converge at the higher energy end of the spectrum at 365 nm.</p><p>These lines are governed by a simple mathematical relationship:<br><br><img align="middle" alt="1 over lambda" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«mi»§#955;«/mi»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-1.php?formula=0aee7c72dbdeb0f5b5aa54baa9cabab7.png"> =<em> R</em> (<img align="middle" alt="1 fourth" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«mn»4«/mn»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-2.php?formula=6b64e3f1756ce85c83641331891aeb89.png"> − <img align="middle" alt="1 over n squared" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«msup»«mi»n«/mi»«mn»2«/mn»«/msup»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-3.php?formula=1389d5d0f6f2989fca2b06798cbeab47.png">) where <em>n</em> = 3 (to give 656 nm), 4 (to give 486 nm), 5,6….. etc. <em>R</em> is known as the Rydberg constant.</p><p>It can be seen that as <img align="middle" alt="1 fourth" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«mn»4«/mn»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-2.php?formula=6b64e3f1756ce85c83641331891aeb89.png"> is also <img align="middle" alt="1 over 2 squared" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«msup»«mn»2«/mn»«mn»2«/mn»«/msup»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-4.php?formula=dec120f68d9a3714353e742cc684c627.png"> this equation is a special case of a more general equation:<br><img align="middle" alt="1 over lambda" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«mi»§#955;«/mi»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-1.php?formula=0aee7c72dbdeb0f5b5aa54baa9cabab7.png"> =<em> R</em> ( <img align="middle" alt="fraction numerator 1 over denominator n subscript 1 superscript 2 end fraction" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«msubsup»«mi»n«/mi»«mn»1«/mn»«mn»2«/mn»«/msubsup»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-5.php?formula=87b3bba6f3db3d95b37be677eebd45a8.png"> − <img align="middle" alt="fraction numerator 1 over denominator n subscript 2 superscript 2 end fraction" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«msubsup»«mi»n«/mi»«mn»2«/mn»«mn»2«/mn»«/msubsup»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-6.php?formula=f658bc65af3b0735df88770893b50e71.png">) where <em>n</em><sub>1</sub> = 1, 2, 3, 4….. and <em>n</em><sub>2</sub> = (<em>n</em><sub>1</sub>+1), (<em>n</em><sub>1</sub>+2), (<em>n</em><sub>1</sub>+3), (<em>n</em><sub>1</sub>+4)……</p><p>If <em>n</em><sub>1</sub> = 1 then the series of lines will be of higher energy (shorter wavelength) and appear in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. <em>n</em><sub>1</sub>= 2 gives the lines in the visible region and <em>n</em><sub>1</sub> =3 will give a series of lines in the infra-red region etc.</p><p>For emission spectra these series of lines represent electrons falling from higher to lower energy levels.</p><p>Evidence that they do relate to the energy levels that can be occupied by the electron can be obtained by considering promoting an electron from the lowest possible energy level to infinity, i.e. removing the electron completely, in other words ionizing the atom. In this case <em>n</em><sub>1</sub>= 1 and <em>n</em><sub>2</sub> = infinity.</p><p><img align="middle" alt="1 over lambda" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«mi»§#955;«/mi»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-1.php?formula=0aee7c72dbdeb0f5b5aa54baa9cabab7.png"> = <em>R</em> (<img align="middle" alt="1 over 1 squared" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«msup»«mn»1«/mn»«mn»2«/mn»«/msup»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-7.php?formula=37662d5a21d47892c1f7c98672586566.png"> − <img align="middle" alt="1 over infinity squared" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«msup»«mo»§#8734;«/mo»«mn»2«/mn»«/msup»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-8.php?formula=bde3415994cd27e1e73e7f9299fd29b9.png"> ) so that <img align="middle" alt="1 over lambda" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mn»1«/mn»«mi»§#955;«/mi»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-1.php?formula=0aee7c72dbdeb0f5b5aa54baa9cabab7.png"> = <em>R</em>. Since <em>c</em> = <em>λv</em> and <em>E</em>= <em>hv</em> then</p><p><em>E</em> = <em>hcR</em> for one electron or <em>hcRL</em> for one mole of electrons.</p><p>Planck’s constant (<em>h</em>), the velocity of light (<em>c</em>), Rydberg’s constant (<em>R</em>) and Avogadro's constant (<em>L</em>) are four of the most accurately known constants in science. By substituting their values into this theoretically derived equation we can calculate the energy required to remove one electron from a mole of gaseous hydrogen atoms i.e. the ionization energy.</p><p><em>E</em> = (6.6261 x 10<sup>−34 </sup>Js) x (2.9980 x 10<sup>8</sup> ms<sup>−1</sup>) x (1.0974 x 10<sup>7</sup> m<sup>−1</sup>) x (6.0221 x 10<sup>23</sup> mol<sup>−1</sup>)</p><p>= 1.313 x 10<sup>6</sup> J mol<sup>−1</sup> = 1313 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup> which agrees completely with the experimentally determined value given in Section 8 of the IB data booklet (1312 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>).This provides strong evidence that atomic spectra are due to electron transitions between energy levels within the atom.</p><p>Although the above calculation shows that the emission spectrum of hydrogen does very much support the Bohr model of the atom, Higher Level students do not have to use the Rydberg equation in calculations. They can obtain the ionization energy of hydrogen directly from the fact that the convergence line in the ultraviolet appears at a wavelength of 9.12 x 10<sup>−8</sup> m.</p><p><em>E</em> = <em>hv</em> = <img align="middle" alt="fraction numerator h c over denominator lambda end fraction" class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mrow»«mi»h«/mi»«mi»c«/mi»«/mrow»«mi»§#955;«/mi»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-9.php?formula=2023ee96c2e1d6c86c5baecac93bb20d.png"> = <img align="middle" alt="Syntax error from line 1 column 72 to line 1 column 109. Unexpected '6'." class="Wirisformula" data-mathml="«math xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mfrac»«mrow»«msup»«mn»6.63 §#215; 10«/mn»«mo»§#8722;34«/mo»«/msup»«mo»J s«/mo»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mo»§#215;«/mo»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mn»3«/mn»«mo».«/mo»«mn»00«/mn»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mi»x«/mi»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«msup»«mn»10«/mn»«mn»8«/mn»«/msup»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«msup»«mi»ms«/mi»«mrow»«mo»§#8722;«/mo»«mn»1«/mn»«/mrow»«/msup»«/mrow»«mrow»«mn»9«/mn»«mo».«/mo»«mn»12«/mn»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mo»§#215;«/mo»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«msup»«mn»10«/mn»«mrow»«mo»-«/mo»«mn»8«/mn»«/mrow»«/msup»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«mi mathvariant=¨normal¨»m«/mi»«mo»§#160;«/mo»«/mrow»«/mfrac»«/math»" src="../../../ckeditor/plugins/wiris/integration/showimage-10.php?formula=7b30651ed12fec79c0fe40294520272d.png"> = 2.18 x 10<sup>−18</sup>J (for one electron)</p><p>= 2.18 x 10<sup>−18</sup> J x 6.02 x 10<sup>23</sup> mol<sup>−1</sup> = 1.31 x 10<sup>6</sup> J mol<sup>−1</sup> = 1310 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup> (to 3 SF)</p><p>Some teachers have asked where they can find the relevant convergence limit for other elements. The NIST source given below is one place but in fact they are already there in Section 8 of the IB data booklet disguised as first ionization energies. For any element <em>E</em> = <em>hcL</em>/<em>λ</em> where <em>E</em> is the 1st ionization energy and <em>λ</em> is the wavelength of the relevant convergence limit. hcL is a constant which has the value 6.63 x 10<sup>−34</sup> x 3 x 10<sup>8</sup> x 6.02 x 10<sup>23</sup> = 1.1974 x 10<sup>−1</sup> J m mol<sup>-1</sup> or 1.198 x 10<sup>−4</sup> kJ m mol<sup>−1</sup>. This means that for any element you can work out the convergence limit by simply dividing 1.198 x 10<sup>-4</sup> by the IE given in Section 8 of the data booklet to give the wavelength in metres. So for sodium it would be 1.198 x 10<sup>−4</sup> kJ m mol<sup>−1</sup> divided by 496 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup> which gives 2.413 x 10<sup>−7</sup> m or 241.3 nm which corresponds to the value given by NIST.<br><br>If you need a convergence limit to give to your students just do exactly the same sum for any element by dividing 1.198 x 10<sup>−4</sup> by the first IE for that element. Then to fulfill the syllabus requirements you can get them to divide 1.198 x 10<sup>−4</sup> kJ m mol<sup>-1</sup> by the value you have given them to get the IE. Surprise, surprise - it will be the same value as the one given in the data booklet! The whole thing seems a rather pointless exercise because the first ionization energy of any element is inversely proportional to the wavelength of its convergence limit so once you know one and you know the proportionality constant you can work out the other. It means that students are being asked to manipulate numbers using an equation without really having to explain exactly which electron is being promoted to the infinite level and in which region of the spectrum the relevant convergence limit is located. You can read more about this in <a href="../17791/convergence-limits-1.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Basic information » Resources » Novel uses for the IB data booklet » Convergence limits">Convergence limits</a> which is a page in the section on <a href="../17348/novel-uses-for-the-ib-data-booklet--1.html" title="New 2014 programme (First exams 2016) » Basic information » Resources » Novel uses for the IB data booklet ">Novel uses for the IB data booklet.</a></p><hr class="hidden"></div></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><h2>Nature of Science</h2><p>Theories are supported by experimental evidence.<br>Evidence for the existence of energy levels comes from emission spectra.</p><hr class="hidden"></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><table align="left" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h3><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "></span></b></h3><div class="yellowBg"><div><h2><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "><strong>Learning outcomes</strong></span></b></h2><p>After studying this topic students should be able to:</p><p><strong>Understand:</strong></p><ul><li><p>The limit of convergence at higher frequency in an emission spectrum corresponds to the first ionization energy.</p></li><li>Evidence for the existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms comes can be found in the trends in first ionization energy across periods.</li><li>Explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to electron energy levels.</li><li>Data from the successive ionization energies of elements provides information relating to electron configurations.</li></ul><p><br><strong>Apply their knowledge to:</strong></p><ul><li>Use the wavelength or frequency of the convergence limit obtained from emission spectral data to calculate the value of the first ionization energy.</li><li>Deduce the group of an element from its successive ionization data.</li><li>Explain the trends and discontinuities in first ionization energies across a period.</li></ul></div></div></td><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"></span></b></h4><div class="yellowBg"><div><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Clarification notes</strong></span></b></h4><p>The value of Planck’s constant (<em>h</em>) and the formula <em>E</em> = <em>hv</em> are given in sections 1 and 2 in the data booklet.</p><p>Students are not expected to use the Rydberg equation when performing ionization energy calculations.</p><hr class="hidden"><h4>International-mindedness</h4>Two separate international teams working at CERN on the Large Hadron Collider independently published in 2012 that they had discovered a particle with properties consistent with those previously predicted for the ‘Higgs boson’ particle.</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="box"><table align="left" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h2><span style=""><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Teaching tips</strong></span></b></span></h2><p>This topic puts some flesh on the core Topic 2.2 - Electron configuration. I introduce the content of both topics by getting students to perform flame tests on various metal salts. You can either do this in the traditional way using a Bunsen burner with a nichrome wire or by using an atomiser. This then leads on to looking at discharge tubes with a diffraction grating and then showing them pictures of actual spectra. From this it is quite easy to introduce the idea of the electromagnetic spectrum and the relationships between wavelength, frequency, velocity and energy (<em>c</em> =<em> λv</em> and <em>E</em> = <em>hv</em>).</p>The background I have given above in 'Pause for thought' goes much further than is necessary but for clever students it does show that the connection between atomic spectra and electrons is based on both observation and deduction which is an excellent TOK point to make. <em>n</em><sub>1</sub> and <em>n</em><sub>2</sub> are of course principal quantum numbers and although students do not need to understand quantum numbers it is good for them to see how the energy levels are described and also converge.<br><br>Stress the importance of the discrete lines and also the difference between emission and absorption spectra. They should know that the biggest difference between any two energy levels is between level 1 and level 2 and the ionization energy for hydrogen can only really be calculated from the ultraviolet spectrum (Lyman series) as in this series all the electrons are falling back to the ground state (<em>n</em> = 1).<br><br>Although it is actually listed under this topic I do get Standard Level students to plot the graph of first ionization energy against atomic number as I think it helps to provide good evidence for sub-levels (see Topic 2.2). This topic goes further with graphs of successive ionization energies which provide further evidence. Stress that the large jumps seen in the graphs of successive ionization energies relate to when electrons are being removed from a new (inner) main energy level.<hr class="hidden"></td><td style="width: 50%;" valign="top"><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal; "><strong>Study guide</strong></span></b></h4><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"><img alt="" class="left noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Basic%20information/New%20cover.jpg" style="width: 67px; height: 96px;"></p><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;"></p><hr class="hidden"><p><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">Page </span></b><span style="font-weight: normal;">13</span></p><hr class="hidden"><h2>Questions</h2><p>For ten 'quiz' multiple choice questions with the answers explained see <a href="../24348/mc-test-electrons-in-atoms-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 2 & 12 » Electrons in atoms » MC test: Electrons in atoms">MC test: Electrons in atoms</a>.</p><p style="margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 1em;">For short-answer questions which can be set as an assignment for a test, homework or given for self study together with model answers see <a href="../40879/electrons-in-atoms-questions-1.html" title="Core & AHL » Teaching each topic & sub-topic » Topics 2 & 12 » Electrons in atoms » Electrons in atoms questions">Electrons in atoms questions</a>.</p><hr class="hidden"><h4><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Vocabulary list</strong></span></b></h4><p>Ionization energy<br>Discharge tube<br>Line spectrum<br>Continuous spectrum<br>Convergence<br>Planck's constant</p><hr class="hidden"><h4><br><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold;"><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>IM, TOK & Utilization etc.</strong></span></b></span></h4><p>See <a href="chemistry/go/16916">separate page</a> which covers all of Topics 2 & 12 (part of it reinforces the background given above)</p><hr class="hidden"><h2><span style=""><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><strong>Practical work</strong></span></b></span></h2><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/lab-1.png"> Flame tests of common metal ions</p><p><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/lab-1.png"> Gas discharge tubes with a prism or diffraction grating.</p></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="greenBg"><h2 id="anchor-14">Teaching slides</h2><p>Teachers may wish to share these slides with students for learning or for reviewing key concepts.</p><div id="myCarousel-15" class="carousel slide" data-id="226"><!-- Carousel items --><div class="carousel-inner"><div class="active item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-226/ea121.png" rel="gallery-226" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/ea121.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrons in atoms: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-226/121-2.png" rel="gallery-226" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/121-2.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrons in atoms: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-226/ea123.png" rel="gallery-226" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/ea123.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrons in atoms: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-226/121-4.png" rel="gallery-226" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/121-4.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrons in atoms: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-226/121-5.png" rel="gallery-226" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/121-5.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrons in atoms: </p></div></div><div class="item"><a class="fancy" href="../../../tib-galleries/3-226/12161.png" rel="gallery-226" title=""><img alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/12161.png"></a><div class="carousel-caption"><p>Electrons in atoms: </p></div></div></div><!-- Carousel nav --><a class="carousel-control left" href="#myCarousel-15" data-slide="prev">‹</a><a class="carousel-control right" href="#myCarousel-15" data-slide="next">›</a><div class="tib-indicators"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 10px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/ea121-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/121-2-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/ea123-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/121-4-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/121-5-thumb128.jpg"><img class="" title="Click to view" style="margin: 5px 4px; width: 48px; height: 48px;" alt="" src="files/tib-galleries/3-226/12161-thumb128.jpg"></div></div><p> </p></div><hr class="hidden"><div class="blueBg"><h2><span style="font-weight: bold;">Other resources</span></h2><p><strong>1. </strong>If you like simulations then you could try this one called <a href="http://astro.unl.edu/naap/hydrogen/animations/hydrogen_atom.html">Hydrogen atom simulator <img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/simulations.png"></a> from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Be warned though that it uses electron volts as the unit of energy!</p><hr class="hidden"><p><strong>2. </strong>Using a diffraction grating to show how four different elements can be identified from their emission spectra.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="280" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/1gT7hlYvKg0?rel=0" width="360"></iframe></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://youtu.be/1gT7hlYvKg0" target="_blank" title="Videos"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/icons/video-1.png"><span class="anchor" id="video-1" name="video-1"> </span> Atomic emission spectra</a></p><hr class="hidden"><strong>3.</strong> There are many sites where you can get precise details of all the lines in the atomic spectrum of each element for example, <a href="http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/ASD/lines_form.html">NIST</a>. One where the spectra of many of the common elements are actually given in full colour is the site built on the work of John Talbot titled <a href="https://portia.astrophysik.uni-kiel.de/~koeppen/discharge/index.html">Spectra of gas discharges</a>.<hr class="hidden"></div></section></article><section id="media-extras"><div class="page-actions no-print navbar inline hidden-desktop"><div class="navbar-inner"><ul class="nav"><li><a class="presentation" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-desktop"></i></a></li><li><a class="print-section-blog" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-print"></i></a></li><li><a class="page-bookmarker" data-ticket="IB Docs (2) Team" data-pid="16946" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star"></i></a></li><li><a class="personal-notes" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-file-text"></i></a></li><li><a class="" data-toggle="modal" href="#modal-feedback" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></a></li><li class="dropdown"><a class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-target="#" href="#"><i class="fa fa-share-alt"></i></a><ul class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/share?text=%22Electrons+in+atoms%22+-+via+%40InThinker+%23chemistry%0A&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F16946%2Felectrons-in-atoms"><i class="fa fa-twitter-square"></i><span>Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F16946%2Felectrons-in-atoms&t=Electrons+in+atoms"><i class="fa fa-facebook-square"></i><span>Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F16946%2Felectrons-in-atoms"><i class="fa fa-linkedin-square"></i><span>LinkedIn</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="https://plus.google.com/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F16946%2Felectrons-in-atoms"><i class="fa fa-google-plus-square"></i><span>Google +</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="mailto:?subject=Electrons in atoms&body=Hydrogen gas discharge tubeEach element has a unique atomic spectrum which consists of discrete lines and is therefore not continuous. 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