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Latest updates

Measuring energy changes17 August 2022

All fossil fuels provide their energy through an exothermic reaction involving combusting the fuel in air.1. Problems with enthalpy diagramsIt is not difficult to find enthalpy level diagrams in books... more

Hybridization17 August 2022

The concept of hybridization is a useful model to explain the shape, bond angles and Lewis structure of molecules. It was developed by Linus Pauling in 1932, the same year that he introduced the idea... more

Further aspects of covalent bonding 17 August 2022

Benzene is found in crude oil and is an important industrial chemical, both as a solvent and as a chemical feedstock to make polymers such as polystyrene. It used to be used routinely in schools and universities... more

Metallic bonding17 August 2022

The not so rare ‘rare earth elements’Sub-topic 4.5 is very straightforward and it clearly states the trends should be limited to s and p block metals. As I point out in the teaching tips below there... more

Intermolecular forces17 August 2022

1. What’s in a name?Clearly there are attractive forces between all molecules and even between individual noble gas atoms. Helium has an extremely low melting point (-272 oC) but nevertheless it does... more

Covalent structures (1)17 August 2022

This is the first part of sub-topic 4.3 Covalent structures. It includes Lewis structures, the 'octet rule, resonance hybrids and giant covalent structures. I have not included VSEPR theory to determine... more

Covalent bonding17 August 2022

The IB uses Pauling’s scale of electronegativity. It was Linus Pauling who first proposed the idea that the bonding electrons pair between two different atoms is not shared equally. If the electrons... more

Ionic bonding & structure17 August 2022

Something that always amazes me is how, having literally just covered Topic 3 on Periodicity, teachers and books seem to forget all that they have taught on that topic when they introduce ionic bonding.... more

Coloured complexes 17 August 2022

LigandsThe definition of a ligand is that it is a neutral molecule or negative ion that donates one or more pairs of electrons to a metal atom or ion to form a coordination complex. Since it donates one... more

First-row d-block elements 17 August 2022

ParamagnetismIt is good to see that the magnetic properties of transition metal complexes are now on the syllabus. However if you are not careful it could be a case of ' a little knowledge is a dangerous... more