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<div id="main-column" class="span9"> <article id="rhetoric" style="margin-top: 16px;">
<h1 class="section-title">Rhetoric</h1>
<ul class="breadcrumb"><li><a title="Home" href="../../../index.html"><i class="fa fa-home"></i></a><span class="divider">/</span></li><li><span class="gray">Writing </span><span class="divider">/</span></li><li><span class="gray">Teaching Writing</span><span class="divider">/</span></li><li><span class="active">Rhetoric</span></li></ul>
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<section class="span12" id="main-content">
<h1>Getting the message across</h1>
<p>The word 'rhetoric' has a bad reputation anyway, and referring to it in the context of English B can sound intimidating - are we really supposed to be teaching ancient Greek techniques from Anadiplosis to Zeugma? Relax ... no, we're not! The reference to 'rhetoric' is simply a short-hand way of indicating 'techniques of effective communication' - and many of these are in common use anyway, such as (<em>'Exemplum')</em> ... using quotations ('<em>Sententia')</em> ... making comparisons (<em>'Simile', 'Analogy'</em>) ... or exaggerating (<em>'Hyperbole'</em>).</p>
<p>The key teaching point is to get students to reflect on what they have to say, and to devise ways of communicating the message as vividly and persuasively as possible to a given audience. Like this ...</p>
<p>.</p>
<h3 style="margin-left: 40px;"><a href="http://www.slideshare.net/davidripley/speech-rhetoric-4881729" target="_blank" title="Presentations"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/materials/ppt-24.png" style="vertical-align: middle"> Speech rhetoric </a></h3>
<p>.</p>
<div id="__ss_4881729"></div>
<h2>Studying rhetoric</h2>
<p>As already suggested, most students naturally use elements of what is formally called 'rhetoric' - such as exaggeration, or comparisons (<em>"...it's like ... like ... awesome!")</em> - but such effects are, if you like, accidental. The issue for the teacher is to make students aware of what they are doing, to use such techniques consciously and for deliberate effect, and to be able to detect and analyse rhetorical effects in the language of others.</p>
<p>In search of clarity, I have collected a range of the commonest rhetorical techniques, and placed them in the following formal categories :</p>
<p style="margin-left: 40px;"><strong>Structural devices</strong></p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>1. Argument structure</strong></p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>2. Grammar Structure </strong></p>
<p style="margin-left: 40px;"><strong>Transactional devices</strong></p>
<p style="margin-left: 40px;"><strong>Imagination devices</strong></p>
<p style="margin-left: 40px;"><strong>Emotive Devices</strong></p>
<p>.</p>
<p>Let me translate these slightly ponderous, theoretical terms into language that one could actually use with students :</p>
<p style="margin-left: 1.06cm;"><strong>Structural devices</strong> ... all considered use of language (i.e. written text, prepared speech) has sequence and structure - you deal with A, then B, then C, and so on. Different structures will have different effects.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 1.06cm;"><strong>Argument structure</strong> ... you pay attention to the structure of the ideas - for example, do you put the positive arguments first and then the negative ones, or the negative first and then the positive ones? This applies more at the paragraph level.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 1.06cm;"><strong>Grammar structure</strong> ... you pay attention to the way basic grammar works - for example, do you want short, punchy sentences or long complex ones? This applies more at the sentence level.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 1.06cm;"><strong>Transactional devices</strong> ... all language assumes a relationship with an audience - for example, what do you want the audience to do, and what can you assume that they know? Are you telling them what to think? Or asking them? Or trying to persuade them? Put another way, 'transaction' means 'negotiation'.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 1.06cm;"><strong>Imagination devices</strong> ... a catch-all term to cover everything outside straightforward direct statement - for example, using illustrations, metaphors, symbols, and so on.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 1.06cm;"><strong>Emotive devices </strong>... you try to create a particular emotional response from the audience - for example, thinking about their own personal experience and relating it to yours, or reacting emotionally to the words that you use.</p>
<h3>Practical Rhetoric</h3>
<p>So, there's a nice pretty theoretical structure - but what does it mean in terms of practical, teachable techniques for students? Here is the basic list - <span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>words in blue </strong></span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"> </span>have PopOvers (like this <a class="tib-popover" data-content="an example..." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a>) to amplify or comment on the basic terms.</p>
<p>.</p>
<p>.</p>
<h3>Structural devices</h3>
<p>.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 40px;"><strong>1. Argument structure</strong></p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Overall sequence shape</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="Not a difficult concept to grasp - but students may need to be reminded in order to see the techniques, and may have to do some Rank Order exercises (see Task Types ) in order to actually put the technique into their writing." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a>- Climax (important last) ... Anticlimax (important first) ...</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>Adding-on & inserting </strong> - Lists ... <span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Parenthesis</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="Students may use brackets or dashes spontaneously - but perhaps wrongly, or without a real sense of why they are doing so. 'Tone of voice', or the idea of an 'aside' may help here." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a>...</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>Re-play </strong> - <span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Basic summary</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="Most students will have the idea of a conclusion as summary - 'saying what you've already said, but shorter'. But what's the point of doing this? And can you do this efficiently? (See also Summary under Task Types)" data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a>... <span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>'interim summary' (backwards & forwards)</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="A useful technique for the middle of a piece of writing - re-cap what you've said already, and announce briefly what you're going to say next." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a> ... <span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>summary with emphasis <a class="tib-popover" data-content="Raises the idea of the 'added-value' conclusion - not mere repetition, but adding emphasis, re-phrasing more forcefully, etc ... Mention that strong conclusions make better impressions." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a></strong></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>Contrast</strong> - good alongside bad ... <span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>good after bad ... bad after good</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="Which sounds better - to be 'happy but fat' or 'fat but happy'? Surely the last concept sticks in the mind, so gives the 'spin' to the phrase - do you want to leave a positive or a negative impression?" data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a>... balancing opposites <span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>('objective')</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="One of the defining features of the Essay text-type - the authority that comes from demonstrating that you have considered the topic fully and without bias. See also 'rebuttal'." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a> ... <span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>rebuttal</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="The deliberate introduction of counter-arguments, to anticipate objections and/or to show that you have considered the argument fully and from all sides." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a> (point counter point)</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;">.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;">.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 40px;"><strong>2. Grammar Structure</strong></p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>General <a class="tib-popover" data-content="This really covers the task of making students aware of sentence structure - not just in terms of basic grammatical accuracy, but also in terms of the effect of different types of sentences. This is a vast area, and these categories are the merest hint." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a></strong></span><strong> </strong> - phrases without conjunctions (lists) ... complex clauses with conjunctions ... similar phrasing versus deliberately varied phrasing ...</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Repetition</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="Students grasp the concept easily enough - Martin Luther King's 'I have a dream' speech does the job - but getting them to use the ploy is less easy. How can this be done?" data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a> - Sentences: last words beginning next ... beginning the same ... ending the same ... beginning & end the same</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Reversal & balance</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="Realistically, this is rather too fancy for most students, apart from those who already have quite sophisticated language resources. Getting them to notice such subtleties in reading would be good, but frankly of more use to A2 students than to Language B." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a> - reversing structure of second half of sentence ... symmetrical structures</p>
<p>.</p>
<p>.</p>
<p>.</p>
<p><span style="font-size: 14px;"><strong>Transactional devices</strong></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Direct encounter</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="This refers to anything involving direct interaction with the audience, whether the simple element of direct address (using pronouns like 'you' or 'we'), or more complex techniques like asking rhetorical questions" data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a>- direct address to audience ... raising questions, answered ... rhetorical question</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Playing with judgement</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="By 'judgement' I mean the common sense knowledge of what is normally expected - clearly exaggeration and understatement are deliberate and understood departures from the accepted norm." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a> - exaggeration (hyperbole) ... understatement ...</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Attitude</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="In other words, playing games with one's relationship with the topic being discussed ... perhaps pretending one attitude when you really have another." data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a>- expressing doubt ... denying the opposite to emphasise the real ... leaving obvious gap</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Irony</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="A vast topic here, and only the first example of 'saying one thing and meaning another' is readily accessible to most students - and I always find it advisable to emphasise that 'irony' is not exactly the same as 'sarcasm'. The other meanings are more part of Lit Crit, really" data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a> - saying one thing but meaning the opposite ... sensing a discrepancy between vision and reality (‘natural, moral’) ... creating a surprising twist in story (‘created’) ... one word irony, established by context : (Antiphrasis)</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;">.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;">.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;">.</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;">.</p>
<p><span style="color:#0000CD;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><strong>Imagination devices <a class="tib-popover" data-content="The first category can and should be taught to all students, from the fairly Basic level upwards. These are all to do with the reference to 'support details', and as the students progress they should be taught the differences between the terms. The other categories depend on the degree of increasing linguistic sophistication" data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a></strong></span></span><a -="" 2="" and="" are="" argument="" as="" be="" by="" c="" can="" categories="" concrete="" criterion="" dealt="" detail.="" details="" for="" general="" handle="" href="javascript:void(0);" in="" need="" needs="" of="" other="" paper="" production="" referred="" sort="" students="" supported="" supporting="" the="" them="" three="" title="The first category can and should be taught to all students, from the fairly Basic level upwards. These are all to do with the reference to 'support details', and as the students progress they should be taught the differences between the terms. The other categories depend on the degree of increasing linguistic sophistication" to="" whatever="" when="" with="" writing="" written="" you=""><span style="font-size: 14px;"><strong> </strong></span></a></p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>External reference/ importing</strong> - allusion ... reference ... example ... illustration ... evidence ... quotation</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>Comparisons</strong> - simile ... metaphor ... analogy ... personnification</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>Representatives </strong> - metonymy ... synecdoche ... symbol</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong>Contrast</strong> - paradox ... oxymoron</p>
<p><span style="font-size: 14px;"><strong>Emotive Devices</strong></span></p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><strong><span style="color:#0000FF;">Direct Appeal</span> </strong> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="This is different from 'Direct Encounter' in that it is not about HOW you address someone, but more about WHAT you ask them to think about - their own lives, patriotism, etc" data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a>- to the individual ... to the collective ... to personal experience</p>
<p style="margin-left: 80px;"><span style="color:#0000FF;"><strong>Language sound</strong></span> <a class="tib-popover" data-content="Again, more for Upper Middling & Advanced students - those who don't have to struggle with the basic practicalities of the language, and have time to listen to the music!" data-original-title="" data-placement="top" data-togle="popover" href="#"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/tib-icons/popover-16-small.png"></a>- Sound patterns – alliteration, sibilance, consonance, assonance</p>
<p>.</p>
<p>.</p>
<p>.</p>
<p>[<strong>NOTE :</strong> If you want more detailed, technical definitions, including the classical terms, have a look at the handout<strong> </strong><span style="font-size: 14px;"><strong>]</strong></span></p>
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<p><span style="font-size:14px;"><strong>Handout</strong></span></p>
<p><a href="/media/ib/englishb/files/RHET%20definitions.pdf" target="_blank" title="Worksheets"><img class="ico" src="../../../img/materials/exercise-24.png" style="vertical-align: middle"> Rhetorical definitions </a></p>
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